III. Politics of the 1960s -- Kennedy (35th) and Johnson (36th) Administrations
A. Election of 1960

1. The US population in 1960 was 179,245,000.
2. In the Bi-Elections of 1958, Democrats gained 15 Senate seats (62-34), 48 House seats (282-153) and six governorships controlling 34 to 14, as Americans reacted to the 1958 recession, Republican policy of lowered farm price supports, labor opposition to state right-to-work laws and dissatisfaction with administration foreign policy
   a. John F. Kennedy won a second Senate term by 860,000 votes.
   b. Republican Nelson Rockefeller was elected NY Governor.
3. Major Candidates
   a. Although not optimistic, after the recession of 1957-58 and the set backs in the bi-elections, Republicans in Chicago nominated on the first ballot Vice-President Richard M. Nixon , who had built his career on anti-communism, to carry on as Eisenhower had done, after Gov Nelson A. Rockefeller (NY) had withdrawn from consideration, adding Henry Cabot Lodge (MA) to the ticket for Vice-President.
   b. Democrats in Los Angeles
   (1) Three major candidates emerged in the Democratic primaries.
   (a) Many still wanted Adalai E. Stevenson , but he had lost twice.
   (b) Sen Lyndon Baines Johnson (TX) with strong rural and Southern ties led many primaries.
   (c) Sen John F. Kennedy (MA), almost the vice-presidential candidate in 1956 and representative of the activist wing of the party, scored some impressive victories in the primaries.
   (2) Democrats chose Kennedy on the first ballot, placing his closest rival, Lyndon Baines Johnson, on the ticket in the number two spot.
   (3) Democrats had a strong civil rights plank, favored placing medical care for the aged under social security and criticized Eisenhower's tight money policy, although not too critical of the still very popular IKE, especially since he was in poor health.
4. Campaign
   a. The issues were similar, as the party platforms were very close.
   (1) Republicans pledged a health program "on a sound fiscal basis and through a contributory system," reaffirmed IKE's foreign policy and called for an expanded national defense program and strong civil rights bill, including enforcing the right to vote and desegregation of public schools.
   (2) Southerners did not bolt the Democrats over civil rights this time.
   b. Republicans made an issue of the youthfulness and inexperience of JFK, painting Nixon as a matured leader capable of the job, and some question was raised about Kennedy's Catholicism, while Democrats raised the issue of a"missile gap" since the Soviet successful launch of the first earth satellite on 4 Oct 1957, Sputnik I , blaming Republican laxness, although the US had launched its first earth satellite on 31 Jan 1958, Explorer I .
   c. Kennedy defused the religious issue at a minister's meeting in Houston TX.
   d. Television Debates
   (1) For the first time, the presidential candidates debated on national television, participating in four hour-long televised debates.
   (2) The debates aided JFK, giving much needed exposure and name recognition but hurt Nixon, whose "five o'clock shadow" gave him a sinister appearance
5. Results
   a. Democrats controlled both Houses of Congress (Senate 65-35; House 263-174).
   b. Kennedy 34,226,731 popular (49.7%) to Nixon's 34,189,157 (49.6%) popular votes, a plurality of only 118,574 votes.
   c. Kennedy won 303 electoral votes (22 states) to 219 (26 states), but recounts in Illinois, Texas and Hawaii, kept election results in doubt until the electoral vote.
   d. Senator Harry F. Byrd received 15 electoral votes.
6. Kennedy the Man
   a. The youngest ever to be elected president, not the youngest to be president (TR).
   b. He had Addison's disease and did not expect to live past his forties.
B. Kennedy's Domestic Policy --New Frontier
1. Kennedy's Inaugural Address
   a. Kennedy indicated a commitment to a new frontier for the US, outer space.
   b. It called for a grand and noble alliance to combat tyranny, poverty, disease and war and served notice that the US continued to be ready to pay any price to assure survival and the success of liberty
2. 23d Amendment , ratified in March 1961, gave the District of Columbia participation in presidential elections with three electoral votes.
3. Although Kennedy appointed some Republicans to his Cabinet, Republicans combined with conservative Democrats to block much of Kennedy's domestic agenda -- aid to education, urban renewal, a higher minimum wage and medical care for the aged
4. A rising Black awareness and growing civil rights movement forced Kennedy to push a comprehensive Civil Rights Bill, which also bogged down in Congress.
C. Foreign Policy of Kennedy
1. Although promising a "New Frontier" he inherited several problems from Eisenhower
   a. Expanding commitments to South Vietnam
   b. Massive Retaliation , too inflexible, was replaced by Flexible Response Doctrine , a greater reliance on conventional troops and led to increased US troops stationed in Europe.
   c. Problems in Cuba
   (1) 1 Jan 1959 - After three years of guerrilla warfare, the Fidel Castro -led move-ment forced the resignation of US-backed corrupt government of Batiste
   (2) 7 Jan - The US recognized the new Cuban government, led by Castro.
   (3) Although popular in the US press, Castro began to talk as a socialist then communist
   (4) Aug - OAS meeting -- US denounced Cuba as the source of Caribbean tension.
   (5) By 1960 IKE had grown critical of Castro's government, breaking relations with Havana over nationalizing British and US-owned oil refineries in Cuba.
   (6) In retaliation, IKE began cutting Cuba's sugar quota imported to the US.
   (7) After Krushchev declared that the US was trying to "strangle the economy" of Cuba, he warned that any military intervention into Cuba would be confronted by Soviet rockets, IKE declared that the US would not "permit the establishment of a regime dominated by international communism in the Western hemisphere."
   (8) By Oct, the US stopped importing Cuban sugar, placed an embargo on most exports to Cuba and declared that it would defend its naval base at Guantanamo
   (9) 17 Nov - The US began patrol Central American waters with orders to prevent a communist takeover of either Guatemala or Nicaragua.
   (10) Federal funds began for the relief and settlement of Cuban refugees to the US
   (11) Before Kennedy's inauguration, a CIA-backed plan to topple the Cuban government was discussed, assuming that Cubans would rally against Castro if there was any show of support
2. Further Problems in Cuba
   a. Bay of Pigs Fiasco 17-20 April 1961 at the beginning of his administration.
   (1) Kennedy continued discussing the CIA plans.
   (2) 1,200 exiles landed at Cuba's Bay of Pigs but after three days, it utterly failed.
   (3) Why?
   (a) A lack of good intelligence, poor planning, and equipment mismatches
   (b) An incorrect perception of what the Cubans themselves would do.
   (4) Results - Castro pushed toward Moscow, and JFK's image was badly damaged
   b. Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
   (1) 22 Oct - When aerial photographs showed evidence of missiles being placed in Cuba by the Soviets in Oct 1962, Kennedy ordered a naval "quarantine" against Cuba, and demanded the immediate removal of the missiles.
   (2) Furthermore, he notified Khrushchev that an attack from Cuba on the US would be perceived as an attack by the USSR on the US
   (3) 28 Oct - The situation was defused somewhat by Khrushchev agreed to pull out the missiles if the US would end the quarantine and not invade Cuba
   (4) Results - the public image of Kennedy was somewhat restored and Khrushchev was hounded out of office, with Soviet hard liners beginning a military build-up
   (a) Negotiations in Moscow resulted in a test-ban treaty
   (b) Aug 1963 - the Washington-Moscow "hot line" was established.
3. Escalation of Vietnam Commitment - Kennedy was cautious about the US commitment to Vietnam because of the fiasco in Cuba, but he continued to escalate US involvement.
4. Berlin Crisis -- A problem resulted when Russia concluded a treaty with East Germany, and threatening to cut off Western access to Berlin, began in Aug 1961 to build the Berlin Wall
5. 1 Mar 1961 - Peace Corps was established temporarily by executive order
   a. Young American volunteers went to nations as educators, health workers and technicians
   b. They would help implement human resource and economic development programs
   c. Permanent enabling legislation was signed on 22 Sept.
6. 13 Mar 1961 - Alliance for Progress , a 10-point plan of Inter-American cooperation, designed to launch a "decade of democracy" in Latin America.
   a. It called for expending $100 billion, of which 20% was pledged by the US.
   b. Its goals included increasing the GNP by 2.5% annually, a more equitable distribution of national income, industrial growth and increased agricultural productivity, price stability, agrarian and tax reforms, extension of education, improvement of public health and medical services, and increased low-cost housing.
   c. This program quickly became a foreign aid program based on traditional bilateral negotiations between the US and individual Latin American nations.
7. Trade Expansion Act 1962 - Tariffs between the US and Common Market nations were sub-stantially lowered before Charles De Gaulle halted any further advancement in US/Western European relations while Kennedy was alive.
8. 5 Aug 1963 - Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
   a. The US, Britain and USSR agreed to an uninspected test ban, each pledging not to conduct nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, in outer space or underwater, but were allowed to conduct underground tests.
   b. 99 nations agreed by 24 Sept to the treaty
9. 22 Nov 1963 - Assassination of JFK by Lee Harvey Oswald elevated Johnson to President
D. Lyndon Baines Johnson as (36th) President - Domestic Issues
1. Great Society
   a. Johnson desired to be remembered for having done as much for society as FDR had
   (1) He continued pushing many of Kennedy's proposals and kept most of JFK's personnel, taking advantage of Kennedy's soaring charisma after his death
   (2) His motto seemed to be "We can do everything. We can solve everything."
   (3) In his state of the Union Address in 1964, he announced his Great Society program, declaring a War on Poverty
   b. Legislation passed before the Presidential Election of 1964
   (1) Kennedy's Tax Cuts lowered the rates from 20-91% to 14-70% over 2 years.
   (2) 24th Amendment , ratified in Jan 1964, banned a poll tax.
   (3) Economic Aid to Redevelop Appalachia
   (4) Economic Opportunity Act Aug 1964 created Office of Economic Opportunity to coordinate efforts against illiteracy, unemployment and inadequate public services and included such programs as VISTA , Job Corps, work-study programs and small-business incentives.
   (5) Civil Rights Act of 1964 July barred discrimination in public places
   (a) Authorized the Attorney General to institute suits to desegregate schools or other public facilities
   (b) Outlawed discrimination in employment on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin
   (c) Strengthened voting rights by finding 6th grade literacy enough to vote
   (d) Public accommodations provisions upheld in Heart of Atlanta Motel vs US
2. Election of 1964
   a. Major Candidates
   (1) Democrats in Atlantic City nominated Johnson by acclamation as president in his own right with Hubert Humphrey (MN) as Vice-President.
   (2) Republicans in San Francisco
   (a) After moderates/liberals clashed with conservatives, Sen Barry Goldwater (AZ) for President and Rep. William E. Miller (NY) for Vice-President were nominated on the 1st ballot.
   (b) The platform upheld the 1964 Civil Rights Act, affirmed presidential control over nuclear weapons, but did not denounce John Birch Society
   b. Campaign
   (1) Goldwater attacked the federal income tax, Social Security, TVA, new civil rights legislation, nuclear test-ban treaty, and Great Society, using the slogan In your heart you know he's right!
   (2) Johnson painted himself as a cautious, astute leader and portrayed Goldwater as a war-monger, countering with In your guts you know he's nuts!
   c. Results
   (1) Johnson's landslide of 486 (44 states, District of Colombia) to 52 electoral votes (5 Southern states -- SC, GA, AL, MS, LA + Arizona) and a popular vote of 43,129,484 (61%) to 27,178,188 (38.5%) with 336,838 to others.
   (2) Not one state that had voted for Lincoln, Teddy Roosevelt, Hoover or IKE (except AZ and LA in IKE's second term) voted Republican
   (3) Johnson was the third person to have been a Congressman, Senator, Vice-President and then President.
   (4) Democrats strengthened their Congressional majority (Senate - 68-32; House 295-140) but lost one governorship, controlling 33.
3. After this mandate, Johnson passed most of his Great Society legislation
   a. Elementary and Secondary School Act April 1965 provided aid to school districts on the basis of the number of needy students
   b. Medicare July 1965 provided medical care to the aged through the Social Security System, and the Social Security tax was raised to 5.65%.
   c. Voting Rights Act Aug 1965 suspended literacy and other voter tests if less than half of the eligible voters were registered to vote, requiring federal supervision of registration
   d. Housing Act Aug 1965 established more rent supplements to low-income families to aid their move into private housing
   e. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD ) - A new Cabinet post in Sept 1965 - first Black Cabinet member Robert C. Weaver
   f. National Foundation of the Arts and Humanities Sept 1965 provided assistance for painters, actors, dancers, musicians and other artists.
   g. Higher Education Act Oct 1965, the first federal scholarships to individual college students, not schools, avoiding the separation of Church and State issue.
4. 1966 Domestic Issues
   a. The minimum wage was increased to $1.40 per hour effective in Feb 1967 and to $1.60 per hour effective in Feb 1968 and was expanded to include workers in retail stores, restaurants and hotels.
   b. Oct 1966 - a new Cabinet post, Department of Transportation , was created with Alan Boyd as the first secretary, beginning in April 1967.
5. 1967 Domestic Issues
   a. 25th Amendment Feb 1967 provided for presidential succession and disability.
   b. Public Broadcasting Corporation provided financial assistance to non-commercial educational TV and radio broadcasting.
6. Changes in the Supreme Court
   a. June 1968 - Earl Warren announced his retirement and Johnson nominated associate justice Abe Fortas as chief justice, but had to withdraw the nomination.
   b. Johnson appointed the first Black to the Supreme Court Thurgood Marshall
E. Johnson's Foreign Policy
1. Items Other Than Vietnam
   a. Intervention into the Dominican Republic
   (1) After a revolt by followers of deposed popular leader Juan Bosch , removed by military coup on 25 Sept 1963, the US intervened on 27 April into the Dominican Republic to evacuate US civilians
   (2) 22,000 Marines were in the Dominican Republic by 17 May.
   (3) Declaring that the revolt in the Dominican Republic was led by a "band of Communist conspirators," the Johnson Doctrine was enunciated which again justified US intervention into Latin American countries
   (4) Domestic revolution in the Western Hemisphere ceased to be purely local concerns when the object of revolution was to establish a Communist dictatorship
   (5) Aug 1965 - OAS intervention resulted in a provisional government which conducted free elections, in which Joaquin Balaguer was elected president.
   b. Outer Space Treaty Jan 1967
   (1) Set up principles for the peaceful exploration of space and banned weapons of mass destruction, weapons tests and military bases in outer space.
   (2) Signed by the US, USSR, Britain and 57 other nations and unanimously approved by the US Senate in April.
   c. Six-Day War June 1967
   (1) War broke out between the Arab states and Israel after UN peace keeping forces were removed and the Port of Aqaba was closed to Israeli shipping.
   (2) The UN Security Council called for a cease fire, which occurred after Israel was within twelve miles of Syria and had seized Egypt's Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights and Jordan's West bank, including Old Jerusalem.
   (3) Soviet efforts in the UN to have Israel condemned as the aggressor were consistently blocked by the US
   (4) The US replaced France as Israel's chief supplier of sophisticated weaponry
   d. Seizure of the Pueblo 1968
   (1) 23 Jan - a US naval intelligence-gathering vessel was captured by the North Koreans, claimed it was in Korean territorial waters
   (2) Johnson activated 14,000 reservists while negotiations were held
   (3) 22 Dec - North Korea releasomg 82 crew members and one body, kept the ship
   (4) Johnson's focus on Vietnam, especially during the Tet Offensive, kept him from responding too aggressively against the North Koreans at this time.
2. Escalation of Vietnam
   a. While proclaiming a Great Society, Johnson increasingly focused on the situation in Vietnam, and therefore the other areas of foreign policy were woefully neglected.
   b. Vietnam became a huge financial drain to the Johnson administration, and he could not carry out his proposals as hoped.
   c. Criticism from Vietnam by 1968 forced him to withdraw from the Election of 1968

IV. Vietnam War
A. Background of US involvement in Vietnam

1. French Indochina consisted of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos
   a. As a result of the fall of France in 1940, and the establishment of the pro-Nazi Vichy government, the Asian French colony was turned over to Japan.
   b. Anti-French sentiment in Indochina shifted its focus to an Anti-Japanese movement after the French were pitched out.
   c. Various groups in Vietnam were aided by the US in fighting Japan, including the nationalist group, Vietminh, led by communist Ho Chi Minh , both anti-French and anti-Japanese.
2. After WW II, the French returned.
   a. In Dec 1946, the French and the Vietminh were fighting each other.
   b. France requested aid and assistance from the US, who at first perceived this as a French attempt to restore its colonial empire, which the US did not favor.
   c. US intelligence determined that the communist Ho Chi Minh was very popular.
   d. As the US perception of the struggle changed, the aid to the French increased.
3. Bao Dei
   a. France established a puppet regime with Bao Dei, from the Vietnamese royal family
   b. The US sided with Bao Dei's claim, especially after the fall of China in 1949, and the beginning of the Korean War in 1950, and recognized Vietnam in 1950.
   c. By 1954, the US was paying 80% of the French military costs in Vietnam.
4. Dienbienphu
   a. The French were unsuccessful against a guerrilla fighting nationalistic movement
   b. In 1954, the French fortified Dienbienphu, hoping to commit the communists to larger numbers of troops when attacking the fortress, but it was in a valley and the nationalists gained momentum against the installation.
   c. Dienbienphu was driven into the ground and the French surrendered
   d. This was the psychological turning point of the war among the French public as the French public could no longer justify the costliness of the war
   e. May 1954 marked the end of the French role in Indochina.
B. Vietnam and the Eisenhower administration
1. Geneva Accords - May-June 1954
   a. An international conference of major powers produced an agreement over Indochina
   b. Britain and the Soviet Union, co-chairs, the US, People's Republic of China, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam (both Bao Dei, and the Vietminh were represented).
   c. The agreement stipulated a temporary division of Vietnam at the seventeenth parallel with a DMZ between the two areas.
   (1) The Vietminh would administer the North
   (2) Bao Dei would administer the South
   d. Neither side could enter into agreements involving foreign policy nor accept foreign troops on their soil, until after elections were held in two years, scheduled for July 1956, at which time the permanent government of Vietnam would be selected.
2. Ngo Dinh Diem
   a. Emerging as a political leader in the South was a pro-Western (pro-French/US) South Vietnamese Catholic named Diem, from the wealthier Catholic minority in the South.
   b. Diem announced that no elections would be held in the South as scheduled
   (1) The division of Vietnam into two nations would remain
   (2) After Diem promised to make reforms, the US backed this decision, having never signed the Geneva Accords, because of Communist China's participation.
   c. In rigged elections, Diem emerged in the South over Bao Dei, effectively ending the monarchy, before revealing his true intentions -- no free elections.
   d. Even though Diem was corrupt, weak and unstable and the population were mostly Buddhist, and Diem sought to improve his family's position in South Vietnam, making none of the promised reforms, Eisenhower backed Diem's regime
   e. The US sent 1,500 advisors to South Vietnam by the end of his administration.
3. Ho Chi Minh concluded an economic agreement with Communist China.
C. Kennedy Administration
1. An Overthrow Attempt -- The situation in Vietnam deteriorated in 1961 which brought an attempt by the communists and others to overthrow the Diem regime.
2. Kennedy's Response - the Taylor-Rostow Mission
   a. Vietnam was a minor issue at first in Kennedy's administration, Cuba taking most of his foreign policy attention, but Kennedy had to answer this attempted overthrow of Diem -- should we continue to support Diem or pull out?
   b. He sent two men on a fact finding mission to Vietnam - Gen Robert Taylor and Walt Rostow , who returned, making two points in their report:
   (1) An observation - North Vietnam was vulnerable to conventional bombing -- American air power could be used.
   (2) A recommendation - Introduce US combat troops into South Vietnam.
3. Kennedy, although not yet preoccupied with Vietnam, decided to intervene in South Vietnam, not only with resistance, but also with actual involvement in the war, by increasing the US presence in Vietnam in 1961-62, but remaining occupied with Cuba.
4. Removal of Diem
   a. Following the Cuban Missile Crisis, Kennedy regained his tough image, but the situation in Vietnam had worsened, because Diem was becoming a serious liability.
   b. Oct 1963 - a military coup, aided by the CIA and US ambassador to Vietnam, overthrew Diem who was murdered
   c. Before Kennedy could respond, he was assassinated in Nov 1963
D. Escalation Under Johnson
1. Direct US military involvement in Southeast Asia continued as Vietnam became central to US security in the region -- Johnson stated that US involvement in Vietnam was needed to demonstrate that the US kept its commitments, halt Communist aggression, insure the South's independence and contain China, but he did not push its escalation until after the election of 1964.
2. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution 7 Aug 1964.
   a. In July, prior to the presidential election, the US Maddux was attacked in the Gulf of Tonkin by North Vietnamese PT boats, after which Johnson asked Congress for a resolution, concealing the provocative nature of US naval operations in the Gulf of Tonkin
   b. Congress (Senate 88-2; House 414-0) authorized the President to use military power to promote the maintenance of international peace and security in Southeast Asia [Wayne Morse (OR) and Ernest Gruening (AS) opposed it].
3. Election of 1964 - Johnson successfully painted himself as a cautious candidate and Goldwater as a warmonger (for promising to seek a military solution if the US was involved).
4. Military Buildup
   a. After the election of 1964, Johnson became convinced that a massive build-up of US combat troops was necessary, because a military victory was possible.
   b. A two-fold strategy was unveiled in 1965 - use the right power to get the job done
   (1) Use air power against North Vietnam
   (2) Increase the number of ground troops in South Vietnam
   c. Jan 1965 - Operation Rolling Thunder
   d. Spring 1965 - 2 Marine units were sent to Vietnam to Danang
   e. The first major confrontation between US and North Vietnamese forces, in the Ia Drang Valley in Oct-Nov, demonstrated that although the North Vietnamese suffered heavy casualties, they could maneuver against US ground and air power.
   f. US commander in Vietnam, Gen William C. Westmoreland , as a result, asked for and received vast increases in US ground forces.
   g. Sept 1967 - Nguyen Van Thieu was elected president of South Vietnam
   h. Although South Korea, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand and the Philippines were also participating in this war, by late 1967 the US had 650,000 ground troops in South Vietnam
5. Key Year 1968 - Tet Offensive
   a. Jan - the Viet Cong (South Vietnamese who opposed Diem and other governments) launched an attack, using North Vietnamese and Soviet equipment
   b. Key US and South Vietnamese installations, including the US embassy in Saigon, were attacked, but the Viet Cong were utterly decimated.
   c. Although the Viet Cong were destroyed, leaving the struggle to the Regular North Vietnamese army, the Tet Offensive dramatically impacted public opinion of the war
   (1) While Tet was a major military victory for the South, politically it was a victory for the opposition, because it demonstrated that the war was not almost over, as Johnson had intimated with each new troop level.
   (2) The Tet Offensive was the American Dienbienphu.
E. Student and Peace Movements
1. Background of Vietnam Dissent
   a. The civil rights movement overlapped with the student movement, as students worked in the civil rights movement from 1958-60.
   b. Students became aware that a student organization could have an impact on US Society
   c. The baby boom with its many child-centered attitudes and permissiveness resulted in a"revolt of the young" (which at best was only a minority of students).
   d. The roots were in the "beat generation"of the 1950s and in the socialist and pacifist activities which followed World War II.
2. Students for a Democratic Society (SDS )
   a. An organization was founded in 1962 which made a statement
   b. Port Huron Statement had a philosophical commitment to Socialism
3. Free Speech Movement Berkeley California 1964
   a. The student movement gained momentum and became a national movement, when school authorities tried to ban political discussions on campus
   b. The Free Speech Movement, led by Mario Savio , set an example for other campuses.
4. Multiversities
   a. At first the protests centered on the depersonalizing transformation of a university from its single purpose of education to a broader purpose, adding new departments, and conducting research (many times for the Pentagon).
   b. Students felt that social issues were neglected, but increasingly focused on Vietnam
5. Two Parts of the Movement
   a. New Left , epitomized by such socialist groups as the SDS, who sought fundamental changes in the American system to promote greater fairness and justice.
   b. A Counter Culture was not politically oriented, but rather was composed of students who felt alienated from society.
   (1) They sought a revolution in American society without meetings, and politics.
   (2) Goals included -use of marijuana -pornography -sexual permissiveness -different dress codes (long hair, etc)
   (3) Stressing inner experiences, mysticism, and communal living, these hippies lacked central organization and faded by the end of the decade.
6. Demise of the Anti-Establishment Student Movement as Such
   a. End of the New Left
   (1) Tensions over how to accomplish the goals, as well as student efforts being split among several leftist organizations, split the left by the summer of 1969
   (2) Should the goals be met by working in the system or by altering the system?
   (3) As an organization, the new left was gone, never to reconstitute.
   (a) The SDS dwindled to 500 to 600 members as the Weathermen , bitterly trying radical, underground tactics, bombings and revolutionary methods.
   (b) Ultimately they were arrested by the FBI
   b. End of the Counter Culture
   (1) Aug 1969 - counter culture had a rock concert at Woodstock for 3 days in upstate NY
   (2) West Coast Woodstock at Altamont Speedway in California four months later featured a Rolling Stone Concert with security by the Hell's Angels.
   (a) Fights and violence broke out with one killed.
   (b) A different mood and spirit than Woodstock left many disillusioned.
   c. Ultimately the student energy was absorbed into the Peace movement or anti-Vietnam movement which grew as the war escalated.
7. Peace Movement - Domestic Dissent Escalates
   a. Background
   (1) After the Tet Offensive in Jan 1968, the student movement escalated into a national peace movement, focusing exclusively on the Vietnam War.
   (2) The War became a moral issue - illegal, unjust, immoral
   (3) Several factions within the American society joined the movement, not to change American Society, but to get us out of Vietnam.
   b. In Congress - In Jan 1966, Senator J. William Fullbright (AR), a leading dove in Congress, began televised Vietnam hearings of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee which called attention to the weaknesses of US foreign policy
   c. In the administration - By Oct 1966, Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara began doubting the US "pacification" program (extending South Vietnam's government control into the countryside) and the US air war against the North, which undercut the administration's internal consensus
   d. Within the US public - Expressions of Anti-War Sentiment on College Campuses and other public dissent expanded rapidly from university teach-ins (1965) to massive demonstrations and antiwar parades (April 1967)
F. Election of 1968
1. Republicans gained three Senate seats in the Bi-Elections of 1966 and 47 House seats as an expression of growing dissatisfaction with Johnson's Vietnam policy, even though the Voting Rights Act produced an increase of 28.6% among Black voters.
2. The issue of US involvement in Vietnam became the focal point of debate as the US entered its presidential political season
3. Johnson emerged as very unpopular because of his Vietnam policy
   a. Tet Offensive created a national debate about US Vietnam policy
   b. The seizure of the Pueblo further eroded confidence in Johnson's ability.
4. Candidates
   a. Democrats in Chicago
   (1) Critics of Johnson's policies challenged him for the Democratic nomination
   (a) Senator Eugene McCarthy (MN) called for an immediate withdrawal of all troops, announcing his candidacy for the nomination in Nov 1967
   (b) Although Johnson did not lose the NH primary, McCarthy won a "moral" victory of 42% of the vote (to an unannounced Johnson's 48%).
   (c) Robert Kennedy entered the race a few days later, causing Johnson to announce on 31 March that he was not a candidate for reelection.
   (d) Veep Hubert Humphrey entered in April after LBJ withdrew.
   (2) The antiwar sentiment among Democrats was put in disarray after Kennedy was assassinated by Sirhan Sirhan , following his win in California on 5 June.
   (a) After Senator Ted Kennedy refused to run, Sen George McGovern (SD) tried to pick up Kennedy supporters and antiwar Democrats, claiming to be the philosophical equal to Kennedy, but he entered too late
   (b) Humphrey suggested that his Vietnam policy was different from LBJ's but critics wanted to know why he did not mention this at Cabinet meetings.
   (c) The Chicago convention was plagued by serious student rioting outside the convention hall over the Vietnam War, which left the nation with the impression that the US was on the verge of a serious social upheaval
   (3) Vice-President Hubert Humphrey was nominated for President and Senator Edmund Muskie (ME) for Vice-President.
   b. Republicans in Miami, amid a much quiter atmosphere, nominated Richard Nixon , who after the serious Republican defeat in 1964, worked in the Bi-elections of 1966 for many Republican candidates to emerge as the favorite in Republican primaries, adding Governor Spiro T. Agnew (MD) for Vice-President
   c. Southern Democrats nominated segregationist Gov George C. Wallace (AL) for President under the American Independent Party banner and Gen Curtis E. LeMay , Vice-President.
   d. Antiwar New Party placed Eugene McCarthy on many state ballots without his consent
5. Campaign
   a. Because Humphrey was reluctant to criticize Johnson's Vietnam policies and Nixon had a secret unrevealed plan to end the war, Vietnam was not as potent as it might have been.
   b. Only after Humphrey began to distance himself from Johnson did he gain momentum, almost overtaking Nixon in the final days of the campaign.
   c. Information on a massacre at My Lai came out (where 200 Vietnamese civilians were murdered by frustrated US soldiers, who could no longer distinguish the enemy from friends) on Nov 16, after the election.
6. Results
   a. Nixon won 43.4% (32,785,480) of the popular vote to 42.7% (31,275,166) to 13.5% (9,906,473) with McCarthy receiving 25,858.
   b. 301 to 191 electoral votes with Wallace carrying some Southern states and 46 votes.
   c. Democrats maintained control of Congress (House 243-192; Senate 58-42), but Republicans gained five governorships to control 31, although Agnew resigned.
G. End of the Vietnam War Under Nixon
1. Vietnamization - Nixon's plan was revealed -- gradually turn the fighting over to well-trained, well-equipped South Vietnamese troops while withdrawing US troops.
2. Nixon and Secretary Henry Kissinger (DOS) rejected earlier conclusions on Vietnam
   a. The domino theory was no longer viewed as crucial
   b. China and the USSR were not seen as directing the struggle in South Vietnam
   c. The struggle in Southeast Asia was no longer tied to the security of the US
3. Continued dissent within the American public
   a. Moratoriums in Oct 1969 planned rallies at over 700 colleges and universities
   b. Kent State Ohio Rally
   (1) Nixon announced a joint US-South Vietnamese attack on Communist border sanctuaries in Cambodia at the request of Lon Nol , pro-Western replacement of the neutralist Cambodian Prince Norodom Sihanouk in March 1968.
   (2) Spring of 1970 - following Nixon's surprise invasion of Cambodia, a new wave of student protest erupted.
   (3) 4 May Kent State Rally -- Nat'l Guard fired on a crowd of students, killing 4.
   c. A Washington anti-Vietnam rally five days later resulted in 100,000 attending, with 400 out of 2200 colleges and universities shut down by student strikes or takeovers involving anti-war furor.
   d. Jackson Mississippi 14 May -- State troopers fired into a dormitory, killing two.
4. Results
   a. These actions which had resulted in student deaths, partially diffused the force of the student movement, but Nixon withdrew US troops from Cambodia.
   b. 31 Dec 1970, Congress repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, although Nixon did not view it as necessary for justification for American intervention.
5. June 1971 - Pentagon Papers , unofficially released by Daniel Ellsberg , former DOD aide, further eroded public confidence in the government's handling of the war
   a. This secret study, conducted by Robert McNamara , LBJ's Secretary of Defense, provided a classified history of US involvement in Vietnam and concluded that the kind of war the US was fighting in Vietnam could not be won.
   b. Its publication in the NY Times and others began on 1 July, but administration attempts to get an injunction against the publication was blocked by the Supreme Court
   c. Although Ellsberg was indicted for theft of government property, violating the espionage act by leaking classified documents, charges were dropped because of illegal wiretapping
6. Election of 1972 - Vietnamization was gradually put into place, reducing US troop presence, but a slower-than-expected process kept Vietnam continued as an issue in the Presidential election
   a. Candidates
   (1) Democrats in Miami
   (a) Instead of another 3rd party effort George Wallace entered some Democratic primaries.
   i) Wallace had garnished the most popular votes, but, under new delegate reforms established by a committee at first headed up by George McGovern, was not winning a large delegate count
   ii) Unfortunately for those wishing to send them pointy heads a message , an assassination attempt by Arthur Brewer in Laurel MD on 15 May left Wallace permanently impaired and he withdrew.
   (b) George McGovern won the nomination, having done well in the primaries by calling for immediate removal of the remaining US troops from Southeast Asia and by taking advantage of new Democratic party delegate selection rule reforms (which he had helped to write after 1968).
   (c) Senator Thomas F. Eagleton (MO) was nominated as Vice-President
   (2) Republicans in Miami renominated Nixon and Agnew.
   (3) American Independent Party nominated John G. Schmitz (CA) for President, after their first choice George Wallace was paralyzed.
   b. Campaign
   (1) Democrats called for immediate withdrawal from Indochina, abolishing the draft, amnesty for war resisters, a guaranteed income above the poverty line
   (2) Republicans supported presidential foreign policy, welfare reform, revenue sharing, governmental reorganization, and national health insurance but opposed amnesty for war resisters and forced school busing to achieve racial equality.
   (3) After news was leaked of Nixon bombing North Vietnam's supply lines in Cambodia, expanding the war, a new wave of student protests was touched off on many American colleges.
   (4) Nixon made a minimum of public appearances, relying instead on expenditures of over $50 million and on "surrogate campaigners" and cabinet officials.
   (5) During the campaign, it was revealed that Eagleton had been hospitalized for psychiatric disorders, forcing the candidate to withdraw from the ticket.
   (a) Eagleton was replaced by R. Sargent Shriver (MD), a former Peace Corps director and originally McGovern's seventh choice.
   (b) This action left the Democratic effort badly disorganized and uncertain about the wisdom of their candidate, especially in the South.
   c. Results
   (1) Nixon won reelection with 47,169,911 popular votes (60.8%) to 29,170,383 (37.5%), carrying 49 states and 520 electoral votes to McGovern's 17 (MA, D.C.).
   (2) Republicans won 13 House seats, but lost a governorship and one Senate seat
7. End of US Involvement in the Vietnam War under Nixon 1971-73
   a. A military stalemate in the fighting in 1971-72 led to the beginning of negotiations.
   (1) A cease fire was negotiated with the fighting to stop in Jan 1973
   (2) US troops would be entirely withdrawn
   (3) American POWS would be returned to the US
   (4) The South Vietnam regime would remain in power
   (5) North Vietnam's troops remained in the South where they were when the ceasefire began
   b. This compromise, called Peace with Honor , did not deal with the issues of the war, but allowed the US to get out of Vietnam in a face saving manner.
   c. Following the US pullout of its remaining 27,000 troops and the return of 540 American POWs, the US role in Southeast Asia formally ended, as far as its military intervention was concerned.
   (1) Unfortunately the presence of 145,000 North Vietnamese soldiers in South Vietnam gave the impression that this was a thinly disguised retreat by the US.
   (2) Apr 1975 -- a new offensive by North Vietnam received little resistance from South Vietnam's well-trained but badly-demoralized army, because of corruption in its officer corps.
   (3) The South Vietnamese government surrendered in May 1975, reunifying Vietnam under a Communist Vietnamese regime.
8. Results of the Vietnam War on the US
   a. Economically, inflation and recession resulted from mass expenditures on it, and kept LBJ from having sufficient funding for his Great Society programs.
   b. The American public polarized over the war with 1968 being the year that the war became divisive of American Society
   c. Foreign policy from 1965-72 was largely neglected in other areas while the war soaked up American resources, time, energy and personnel
   d. Serious questions were raised about military intervention and the US policy of containment -- what had worked in Korea had not worked in Vietnam
   e. America's self-image was tarnished.
   f. It kept communist pressure off Indonesia and elsewhere in the Pacific rim, enabling them to remain non-communist as the communists also focused on Southeast Asia

V. Nixon (37th) Administration
A. Domestic Policy

1. Making the Supreme Court More Conservative
   a. Important Supreme Court Cases Preceding Nixon
   (1) Abington School District vs Schempp - 17 June 1963 - the Court 8 to 1 again ruled that forced prayer was banned in public schools (as in Engel vs Vitale 1962 and a parallel case Murray vs Curlett 1963).
   (a) Establishment Clause forbids public schools from sponsoring religious practices akin to prayer
   (b) It was viewed as advancing religion, not simply promoting moral values
   (c) It gave the false impression that the Supreme Court had banned all prayer from school, which was not true .
   (2) Bible reading was limited in 1963.
   (3) 18 Mar 1963 - Gideon vs Wainwright
   (a) The Court unanimously established a defendant's right to counsel, ruling that the 6th Amendment was applied to the states in the 14th Amendment
   (b) With a court-appointed lawyer he was acquited, using new evidence.
   (4) Escobedo vs IL (5 to 4, 22 Jun 1964) and Miranda vs AZ (5 to 4, 13 Jun 1966) established that a suspected criminal must be made aware of certain legal rights before questioning of an accusatory nature could begin
   (a) Before the mid-60s, 5th Amendment provision against self-incrimination had not been applied to proceedings in interrogation rooms or to in-custody police interrogation.
   (b) By 1964, a large body of law pertaining to "involuntary" or "coerced" state confessions had developed
   (c) "Compelling someone to testify against himself" no longer meant legal compulsion.
   b. Nixon promised to do something about the "liberal" court
   (1) In 1969, Earl Warren was replaced as Chief Justice by Warren E. Burger
   (2) By 1971, Nixon had replaced four justices, making the court more conservative
   (a) After Abe Fortas resigned in May 1969, Senate rejected the nominees Clement Haynsworth (55-45) and G. Harrold Carswell (51-45).
   (b) Harry A. Blackmum was confirmed unanimously in May 1970
2. Apollo 10 Moon Landing - 20 July 1969 - Neil A. Armstrong was the first man to walk on the moon followed by Col Edwin E. Aldrin Jr.
3. Nixon's Commitment to the Environment
   a. Oct 1970, all major federal programs were consolidated into the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA )
   b. Water Quality Improvement Act April 1970 authorized the federal government to clean up oil spills, but prosecute those responsible for negligence and required that builders of nuclear plants comply with state water standards.
   c. Clean Air Act Dec 1970, a comprehensive air pollution control program which included greater car emission controls for model years 1975 and beyond.
4. Occupational Safety and Health Act Dec 1970 moved toward an employment environment "free from recognized hazards to employees."
5. Nixon outlined six goals in his State of the Union Address 1971: welfare reform; environmental initiatives; health insurance reform; revenue sharing; government reorganization; full prosperity in peacetime.
6. 26th Amendment , ratified on 30 June 1971, lowered the voting age to 18 in state, local and federal elections, a necessity after the Supreme Court struck down that section of the Voting Rights Extension Act in Oregon vs Mitchell . Dec 1970.
7. Gains of the Feminist Movement
   a. Background for the Modern Feminist Movement
   (1) Women, disillusioned over their roles in the civil rights and student movements (no serious voice in policy making), reformed a feminist movement (late 1960s)
   (2) A decrease in births resulted in smaller families and less responsibilities in the home, releasing more women to get college degrees and enter the work force.
   (3) Betty Friedan Feminine Mystique (1963) examined the woman's role in America and raised the social consciousness of women.
   (a) She maintained that society had conned women into thinking that housework, having babies, and suburb life were the only fulfilling options.
   (b) Instead of fulfillment many women were frustrated and tense.
   (4) Kate Millett (Sexual Politics ) and Germaine Greer (Female Eunuch ) and others espoused feminist goals to end "male chauvinism."
   (5) The goals included legalized abortions, use of non-sexist language like "chairperson"'for "chairman," use of the abbreviation "Ms" instead of "Miss" or "Mrs," and an Equal Rights Movement to the Constitution.
   b. Early Gains
   (1) JFK barred discrimination against women in the federal government
   (2) Equal Pay Act 1963
   (3) Title VII (Civil Right Act 1964) prohibited gender employment discrimination
   c. National Organization for Women (NOW ) -- Sensing that early gains were only symbolic and entirely too slow, Friedan and 26 others founded NOW in 1966, to get the major political parties to adopt a "Bill of Rights" for women in the 1968 platforms.
   d. Equal Rights Amendment March 1972
   (1) Although 1st introduced in 1923, an Equal Rights Amendment passed (Senate 84-8; House 354-24), was submitted to the States and immediately ratified in 28 states.
   (2) It stated that Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex .
   e. Stop ERA Movement
   (1) By Jan 1973, Phyllis Schafly headed a movement to halt the ERA.
   (2) The ERA bogged down in the late 1970s, the time for ratification was extended, but ultimately it failed to be ratified.
   f. Abortions Roe vs Wade 1973
   (1) Supreme Court ruled that state anti-abortion laws were unconstitutional
   (2) The number of legal abortions rose to 900,000 in 1974 with 300,000 illegal abortions.
   (3) Congress sidestepped the issue by prohibiting federal funds for abortions.
   g. Some gains were made, but ultimately the Feminist movement bogged down and the nation turned conservative again in the 1980s.
8. Revenue Sharing Act established a 5-year program to return to state and local governments $30 billion in federal tax revenues as supplements to their own revenues
9. Arab Oil Embargo 1973
   a. After OPEC (Oil Producing Exporting Countries ) was formed, members mainly from Arab states placed an oil embargo to any nation that supported the nation of Israel, creating an alleged US "oil shortage" of fuel, long lines and short tempers at gas stations.
   b. Eventually the embargo was lifted, having failed to alter US Middle Eastern policy, when the US did not abandon its ally, Israel.
   c. Little was done about a US verbal commitment to seek alternative fuel sources.
B. Foreign Policy (Other Than Vietnam) - Grand Design - Nixon's Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger , the chief architect of his foreign policy, devised a new direction for US foreign policy
1. Nixon Doctrine 1970
   a. This policy statement acknowledged limits of US power, repudiating Truman's Doctrine
   b. From now on, US allies would have to rely more on their own resources for their own defense.
   (1) Truman had offered free peoples everywhere US support in their struggles against aggressive action against them.
   (2) Eisenhower had specified the Middle East in his policy statement
   c. Nixon modified this, indicating that the US did not have unlimited resources unconditionally and continuously to aid the cause of freedom.
2. Vietnamization -- The Nixon Doctrine applied to Vietnam
3. Detente - a relaxation of tensions between the East and West
   a. By building a less tense, competitive atmosphere, the world would not always be on the brink of war between the US and USSR.
   (1) A belief that the two could come to terms on most issues to benefit both
   (2) Tie USSR to the US to a degree that war would harm more than cooperation.
   b. This led to some disarmament measures
   (1) An ABM Treaty
   (2) S (trategic) A (rms) L (imitation) T (reaty) froze the production of long-range nuclear missiles for five years.
4. Normalization -- Change the US relationship with mainland Communist China
   a. While previously supporting only one government, Republic of Taiwan, Nixon saw a need to normalize relations with Communist China, as a balance and incentive to the Soviets.
   b. After Kissinger made a secret trip to China in 1971, Nixon visited China in Feb 1972 and diplomatic relations were established between China and the US, while not weakening US commitment to Taiwan.
C. Nixon's Downfall - Watergate Break-in and Subsequent Cover-up
1. Prior to the election of 1972, on 17 June five men burglarized the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington DC
2. A link was soon established between the break-in and two members of CREEP , (Committee to Reelect the President) , E. Howard Hunt and G. Gordon Liddy, although the White House began almost immediate denials of knowledge of the "third-rate burglary."
3. White House Staff was soon implicated in an attempt to coverup the burglary
   a. Documents were destroyed in H.R. Haldeman 's office, White House Chief of Staff
   b. Hunt's White House safe was emptied.
   c. The FBI was pressured to limit the investigation to avoid compromising the CIA
   d. Money was raised to support burglary defendants, indicted on 15 Sept
   e. A grand jury indicted CREEP Deputy Director Jeb Stuart Magruder for perjury
4. Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein , Washington Post investigative reporters, uncovered evidence implicating Attorney General John Mitchell in a secret operation to spy and sabotage Democratic primary campaigns by forging campaign correspondence, making false leaks to the press and seizing confidential files from Democratic offices.
5. Jan 1973 - Trial of 7 men for the Watergate break-in began under chief judge for the US District Court in Washington DC, John J. Sirica
   a. Five defendants pled guilty and two were convicted by a jury
   b. After the trial, one defendant James W. McCord , former security coordinator for CREEP, revealed that the defendants had been pressured into pleading guilty, that others were involved and that perjury had occurred at the trial.
6. 30 April 1973 - White House aides, Haldeman and John Erlichman , Nixon's advisor on Domestic Affairs, and Attorney General Richard Kleindienst , resigned, and John Dean , presidential counselor, was dismissed
   a. At the same time, Nixon conceded that a White House coverup had occurred, although denying that he had any personal knowledge of nor involvement in it.
   b. Elliot L. Richardson was appointed Attorney General and Professor Archibald Cox was appointed Special Prosecutor.
7. May-Sept 1973 - Senator Sam Ervin Jr. (NC)'s 7-man Select Senate Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities, began televised public hearings, which discovered:
   a. Magruder confessed perjury before a grand jury, indicating Mitchell planned the burglary
   b. Dean indicated that Nixon had been a party to the coverup for 8 months, revealing that a White House Enemies List existed.
   c. Mitchell related a plan to forge State Department documents in order to implicate Kennedy in the assassination of Diem in order to discredit Ted Kennedy.
   d. Alexander Butterfield , former deputy White House assistant, revealed that tape recordings of White House and Executive Office Building conversations existed, after which Nixon increasingly claimed Executive Privilege, refusing to release the tapes to Cox or Ervin.
   e. Herbert Kalmbach , Nixon's former personal lawyer, admitted to raising $220,000 for Watergate defendants.
   f. Ehrlichman asserted that Ellsberg psychiatrist's burglary was within Presidential powers
8. 10 Oct 1973 - Vice-President Spiro Agnew resigned, the second Vice-President to do so, after it was revealed that he had accepted payoffs from construction company executives while Governor of MD and Vice-President
   a. He pled nolo contendere to a single charge of income tax invasion
   b. 12 Oct - Using the 25th Amendment for the first time, Nixon nominated House Minority Leader Gerald R. Ford for Vice-President and he was confirmed in the Senate 92-3 and the House 387-5 on 27 Nov and 6 Dec.
9. After a District court upheld Sirica's subpoena for the tapes, Nixon offered a compromise, written summaries of the tapes if both Sirica and Cox did not seek legally additional documents.
10. Saturday Night Massacre Oct 1973
    a. When Cox did not agree to the compromise, Nixon ordered the Attorney General to fire Cox, but he resigned after which Nixon ordered deputy Attorney General, William D. Ruckelshaus , to fire Cox but he also resigned.
    b. Acting Attorney General Robert Bork then fired Cox.
    c. Senator William Saxby (OH) was appointed Attorney General and Leon Jaworski , Houston lawyer, Special Prosecutor.
    d. Adverse public reaction caused Nixon to agree to turn over the tapes, although he claimed that two never existed and an eighteen-minute gap appeared on one.
11. Additional Scandals Surfaced
    a. Presidential involvement in the settlement of an antitrust suit against ITT (International Telephone and Telegraph) in 1971
    b. Major campaign contributions were made under CRP pressure by major corporations.
    c. March 1971 - Milk Fund suggested a link between Nixon's support for increased price supports in exchange for large campaign contributions by the dairy industry.
    d. Large cash gifts from Howard Hughes to Nixon's close friend Charles C. "BeBe" Rebozo and whether Nixon knew about them.
    e. The method used by the President to purchase two estates at San Clemente and Key Biscayne , if proper, and whether Nixon profited from the $10 million in improvements used to secure both residences.
    f. Possible tax fraud on Nixon's 1969-72 returns
    (1) At Nixon's request, an investigation was made and revealed that he owed $476,531 in back taxes and interest, which Nixon promptly paid.
    (2) No suggestion of fraud was contained in the report.
    g. Vesco Case - 2 Nixon administration officials, John Mitchell/ Maurice H. Stans , former Secretary of Commerce and finance chairman of CREEP, were cleared of charges of perjury, obstruction of justice and soliciting a campaign contribution in exchange for intervening in behalf of Robert Vesco , who faced an SEC investigation.
    h. Pressure came from CREEP on major corporations to make campaign contributions.
12. Removal of Nixon
    a. 16 impeachment resolutions introduced in the House were sponsored by 84 Representatives
    b. Oct 1973 - House Judiciary Committee, chaired by Peter Rodino (NJ), began investigating them.
    c. Apr 1974 - Nixon refused to hand over tapes but released 1,200 pages of edited transcripts of 42 taped conversations to the Committee
    d. Judge Sirica gave the Judiciary Committee a sealed Grand Jury report naming Nixon as co-conspirator in Watergate coverup, ordering 64 tapes requested by Jaworski be released
    e. 27 July - House Judiciary Committee voted 3 articles of impeachment, recommending 27-11 that Richard Nixon be impeached, for actions which delayed, impeded and obstructed an investigation into the Watergate break-in, to coverup, conceal and protect those responsible, and to conceal the existence of other unlawful covert activities.
    f. 5 Aug - released transcripts of three tapes revealed that Nixon knew long before 21 Mar 1973 of a "coverup" and had personally ordered a halt to the FBI investigation.
    g. Republicans abandoned Nixon, considering the latest revelation a smoking gun
    h. 8 Aug - Nixon announced his resignation to be effective on 9 Aug 1974

VI. Modern Civil Rights Movement
A. Brown vs Topeka Board of Education 17 May 1954

1. Background
   a. 1938 - Supreme Court ruled that in graduate education, segregated facilities must be totally equal, when ordering a University of MO law school to admit a black student because no black law school existed in Missouri (MO ex rel. Gaines vs Canada )
   b. 1953 - Earl Warren , former Governor of California, was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by Eisenhower, after Chief Justice Fred Vinson suddenly died.
   c. NAACP began to undermine the Jim Crow system of segregation with successful cases in transportation and education
   d. 1948 - Biggest break -- US attorney general signed an amicus curiae brief in a race case (Shelley vs Kraemer ), signaling symbolic federal support for NAACP's strategy.
   e. 1950 - Supreme Court invalidated segregation in graduate schools (McLaurin vs OK State Board of Regents ) and in law schools (Sweatt vs Painter ), noting the inequality of Jim Crow schools and "intangible" harms of racial segregation.
2. Overturning Plessy vs Ferguson 1896
   a. After filing litigation against the separate educational facilities in Topeka KS, NAACP lawyer Thurgood Marshall argued that the mere fact of segregation made equal education impossible and did serious psychological damage to white and black students, offering sociological evidence for his positions.
   b. The Court ruled unanimously that separate educational facilities were inherently unequal, which overturned the previous ruling which permitted separate but equal facilities.
   c. 31 May 1955 - In a separate ruling (Brown II ), the Court ruled also unanimously that desegregation of public schools should begin "with all deliberate speed."
3. Results of the 1954 Supreme Court decision
   a. It became the legal basis for challenging segregation in public places in the South.
   b. Coupled with a growing racial awareness of the affluent society, the modern civil rights movement was born which would successfully end legalized segregation in the South.
   c. Southern resistance solidified in March 1956 after 100 Congressional representatives from the South presented the Southern Manifesto in Washington D.C.
   (1) They denounced the Brown decision and called upon Southern citizens to resist its effects and resist desegregation by every possible lawful means.
   (2) In 1955, white citizen councils sprang up in the South in all-out opposition.
   (3) By 1964, less than 2% of formerly segregated school districts had experienced any desegregation.
B. Phase One -- Modern Civil Rights Movement
1. Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott
   a. 1 Dec 1955 - When a black woman, Rosa Parks, took a seat in the white section of a bus and refused to move when ordered to by the bus driver, she was arrested.
   b. Martin Luther King Jr. , local pastor of Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, organized the Negro response to her arrest -- boycott the busline.
   (1) Blacks in Montgomery, bulk of bus passengers, walked, car pooled, bicycled or did without rather than take the bus.
   (2) The 1-year boycott brought the bus company to the edge of bankruptcy.
   (3) Supreme Court ruling -- Montgomery had to desegregate its busing facilities.
   c. Results
   (1) The busline integrated.
   (2) King emerged as a national leader in the resistance to segregation in the South
   d. Martin Luther King's ideas
   (1) King advocated a non-violent challenge, getting his ideas from
   (a) Mahatma Ghandi's techniques against the British in India;
   (b) Biblical sources and the teachings of Jesus Christ of Nazareth
   (c) Writings of Henry David Thoreau on civil disobedience.
   (2) King recognized the need for reconciliation first (being brought together) before redemption could occurr and goals could be met.
   (a) The movement gradually gained the support of many Northern whites.
   (b) King won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964.
   (c) 1964 - He organized the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC )
2. Struggle over School Desegregation
   a. In Clinton TN, violence resulted in the calling in of the National Guard and the destruction of several US government buildings.
   b. Virginia's Governor cut off state aid to all schools that integrated.
   c. 29 June 1958 - Birmingham AL - a bomb explodes outside of the Bethel Baptist Church where the pastor, Fred Shuttlesworth, is an active civil rights leader.
   d. When blacks attempted to enroll in the University of Alabama, they were resisted.
   (1) 1956 - First black, Autherine Lucy , enrolled in the University of Alabama
   (2) After 3 days of campus violence in which the school was closed, she withdrew
   e. Central High School - Little Rock AR - 1957
   (1) When nine blacks came to enroll in Central High School, Gov Orval M. Faubus called in 10,000 Ark National Guardsmen to prevent their enrollment.
   (2) President Eisenhower was forced to act against this state challenge to federal authority, not out of sympathy for Southern blacks, but because of a negative US image in the world press.
   (a) He federalized the Arkansas National Guard and as commander-in-chief issued orders that the desegregation of Central High School be carried out.
   (b) 1,000 Regular Army paratroopers were also called in.
   (3) 4 Sept - Central High School was desegregated, making IKE the first US president since 1877 to use federal troops to protect the rights of Southern Blacks.
   (4) 30 Sept 1958 - Faubus defiantly closes four high schools in Little Rock, rather than desegregate public education.
3. Civil Rights Act 29 Aug 1957
   a. The US Congress symbolically acknowledged that the US government had some responsibility for the rights of black citizens by passing the Civil Rights Act of 1957
   (1) It prohibited discrimination in public places.
   (2) It created a Civil Rights Commission and Civil Rights division of the Justice Department.
   (3) It strengthened the efforts of Blacks to register and to vote.
   b. To block it, Sen Strom Thurmond (SC) filibustered a record 24 hours 27 minutes
   c. The act was difficult to enforce.
   d. By 1960, the civil rights movement attracted sympathizers from the rest of the nation as well as many younger blacks, and now shifted into a more militant phase.
   e. Congress of Racial Equality (CORE ), founded in 1942, also joined the struggle.
C. More Activist Non-Violent Phase
1. Greensboro Sit-Ins - North Carolina - Feb 1960
   a. At a lunch counter in Woolworth's 5 & 10 in Greensboro, 4 black students used a new tactic for the Civil Rights movement, by refusing to vacate a segregated "whites only" lunch counter.
   b. By 1961, over 70,000 had participated in a sit-in demonstration.
2. Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC )
   a. A black student activist group organized chapters in several major Southern cities.
   b. Non-violent confrontations increased as more young blacks began to challenge Jim Crow.
   c. Both major political parties espoused changes in civil rights.
3. Freedom Rides were organized to test the Interstate Commerce Commission's ban on discrimination at interstate travel facilities.
   a. 1946 - Morgan vs Commonwealth - Supreme Court ruling -- buses must allow seating without regard to race on vehicles involved in interstate commerce or travel.
   b. May 1961 - Bus rides, starting in Washington D.C. and bound for New Orleans, were boarded by sympathetic whites and blacks to test the effectiveness of federal regulations.
   c. White and black riders were brutally assaulted, esp. in Alabama.