ROAD TO US INVOLVEMENT IN WORLD WAR I
III. Steps to World War I and US Involvement in the Great War
A.Background for the Great War

1. Emergence of the Modern German National State
   a. Otto Von Bismarck desired a unified national German state against a common enemy
   b. King William I of Prussia offered Spain's throne to the Hohenzollern prince, a relative, who refused to accept it, when France protested.
   c. 1870 - Napoleon III's fear of a German + Spanish alliance led to the Franco-Prussian War (although Bismarck provoked France to create a common enemy for German unity).
   (1) Prussian forces quickly trapped the French as well as Napoleon III, who surrendered and was deposed by the French in a bloodless revolution in Paris.
   (2) Prussia laid siege to Paris, but after fierce resistance led by Leon Gambetta, France fell in Jan 1871 and the war was over by May 1871.
   (3) Treaty of Frankfurt gave Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and France had to pay $5 billion francs
   (4) William I of Prussia was declared emperor of Germany at Versailles and the modern German state emerged.
   a.Germany withdrew from France in 1873, but France dreamed of revenge
2. Alliance System
   a. Germany's alliance system was a defense against future wars with France.
   (1) 1872 - Three Emperors League (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia), formed to preserve peace between Austria-Hungary and Russia and to isolate Germany's enemy, France (renewed secretly in 1881)
   (2) Kaiser William I intended to make Germany dominant in world affairs, and a defense alliance was completed with Austria-Hungary by 1879.
   (3) Italy joined 1882, making it the Triple Alliance (renewed 1891, 1902, 1907)
   (4) 1888 - When William I died, he was replaced by his son, Frederick III, who also died, leaving William II as emperor of Germany.
   (5) 1896 - Kruger Telegram - William II congratulated Paulus Kruger, President of the Boer Republic of the Transvall in South Africa, on defeating Britain in the early stages of the Boer War, an action viewed angrily as German interference.
   b. Triple Entente
   (1) To balance the new German threat, traditionally antagonistic powers allied.
   (2) France and Russia began negotiating an alliance in 1891 (completed by 1894) to remain in force as long as the Triple Alliance remained in force.
   (3) Britain and France formed the Entente Cordiale in 1904
   (4) Russia joined the alliance in 1907, forming the Triple Entente
B. Steps to War In Europe
1. Balkan Crisis
   a. A struggle between Russia and Austria developed over the control of the Serbian states.
   (1) A previously secret agreement between Austria and Serbia in 1881, resulted in Austria aiding Serbia in a war with Bulgaria in 1885.
   (2) By 1888 a pro-Austrian faction within Serbia battled a pro-Russian faction for control of the Serbian government.
   (3) 1904 - As Serbia grew more nationalistic and anti-Austrian, Russia promoted the idea of regional independence.
   b. 1908 - Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina and would not allow Russian warships to sail through the Dardanelles.
   c. Serbia sought an alliance with Turkey and Greece against Austria
   (1) This desire for independence from Austria, and the possibility of aid from Russia raised the prospects of war in the region
   (2) 1909 - Turkey recognized Austria's annexation of the territories.
   (3) 1910 - Russia and Austria agreed to the status quo in the Balkan Straits.
2. Balkan Wars
   a. 1912 - First Balkan War (Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece against Turkey) ended in an armistice
   b. 1913 - Second Balkan War
   (1) Serbia, being cut off from the sea, desired territory from Bulgaria.
   (2) When Bulgaria attacked Serbia, it was attacked by Rumania, Greece and Turkey and lost territory to Serbia as a result.
3. By 1913 France began pushing for the return of Alsace-Lorraine, lost to Germany in 1871.
4. Averting an international crisis through diplomacy gave Europe a false sense of security
   a. War could not happen because of the new balance of power in Europe
   b. New fierce weaponry also acted as a deterrent to war.
C. Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand 1914
1. A new crisis occurred from which neither side backed down
   a. The heir to the Hapsburg throne, the Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Francis Ferdinand , and his wife, were traveling through Bosnia.
   b. 28 June - In Sarajevo, both were assassinated by Serbian nationalist Gabriel Princips a member of the terrorist organization, Black Hand , whose goals included detaching Bosnia from Austria-Hungary and attaching it to Serbia.
2. At this point, the Central Powers were more willing to take greater risks, hoping for a local war in July which would be over soon.
D. Declaration of War 1914
1. Taking the first step, Austria-Hungary, desiring to punish Serbia, used the assassination as a pretext to issue Serbia an ultimatum, demanding that anti-Austrian agitation be suppressed, but Serbia, with Russian backing, refused to yield.
2. 28 July - Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, and Russia mobilized its armed forces, threatening to attack Austria, if Austria crossed the Serbian border.
3. 29 July - Germany demanded that Russia stop its mobilization or risk war.
4. 31 July - Germany delivered an ultimatum to France, and recognized an imminent-danger-of-war situation regarding Russia's mobilization
5. 1 Aug - Germany declared war on Russia, and mobilized its troops, followed by a French mobilization of its troops
6. 3 Aug - Germany declared war on France and entered France through neutral Belgium, a secret plan known as the Schlieffen Plan , by which Germany expected to knock out France quickly and then have a free hand to deal with Russia
7. 4 Aug - Great Britain, after demanding that Germany respect Belgian neutrality, which Germany refused, declared war on Germany.
8. Central Powers now confronted by France on the West and Russia on the East were eventually joined by Turkey and Bulgaria while Japan and later Italy joined the Allies.
E. US Neutrality Declared
1. When war began in Europe, it greatly shocked the American public, but Wilson declared that the US would be neutral in thought and in deed for several good reasons:
   a. Many US ethnic ties -- 1/3 of the population were tied to Germany, England, France or Ireland (who favored Germany).
   b. American tradition avoided foreign entanglements and wars.
   c. US Progressive spirit was shocked at the thought of war, having come to believe that disputes could and should be settled peaceably.
   d. ***Under international law, as a neutral nation, the US could trade with either side ***
   (1) The economic slump 1912-13 was greatly resolved by the sudden trade increase
   (2) Neutral nations could carry unmolested all goods, except for contraband (arms, munitions and other declared items).
   (3) While trading with all belligerents, a vessel could be turned back by a surface blockade but the blockader was responsible for passenger and crew safety.
2. Wilson declared that a neutral citizen could go anywhere he pleased, sell whatever he pleased, to whomever he pleased.
3. While Americans might have favored the Allied side, Britain's naval blockade around Germany chaffed the American sense of honor and violated American freedom of the seas as a neutral.
   a. Britain redefined contraband to include foodstuffs, textiles and related items, forcing US ships into British ports for a thorough search, a time-consuming process.
   b. Britain also mined the North Sea, and blacklisted US firms suspected of trading with Germany through other neutral nations.
   c. Britain's blockade did not harm US interests much, because Britain compensated merchants for any losses and no American lives were lost in the process.
4. While declaring American Neutrality, it was in fact difficult to maintain.
   a. US public opinion was divided into a pro-Allied, pro-Central or pro-Neutral group.
   (1) A pro-Allied group formed the Lafayette Esquadrille, French Foreign Legion
   (2) Yanks joined Britain's Army or French Foreign Legion as ambulance drivers
   (3) Many Americans organized relief organizations at home.
   b. Even President Wilson indicated his preference in his book Congressional Government in which he expressed an admiration for the British parliamentary political system
   Movement Toward Preparedness
   (1) Roosevelt led a movement in which many civilians entered into a state of preparedness for war.
   (2) 10 Aug 1915 - General Leonard Wood opened a "military training camp" near Plattsburg NY, to which civilians paid their own way, bought their own supplies and received training in military techniques.
   (3) 4 Nov - Wilson endorsed preparedness.
5. As the US drifted toward supporting the Allies, several groups mobilized to halt the drift to war
   a. Quakers led the Peace Movement
   b. Women progressives, including Jane Addams, suggested that war represented the male principle of physical force and would end when the mother viewpoint prevailed in international diplomacy.
   c. Socialists opposed the war, believing that the struggle was among rival capitalist and imperialistic societies in Europe.
   d. Both William Jennings Bryan and Robert La Follette campaigned actively against preparedness, sensing that it would result in the US entering the war.
F. Steps Toward US Intervention into the European War
1. Wilsonian Idealism and His Own Sense of Mission [WATER BEDS]
   a. Early A ttempts T o E ncourage R econciliation
   (1) Wilson in 1915-16 secretly sent Edward M. House to London, Berlin and Paris to mediate a Peace Without Victory as the only hopeful solution to last.
   (a) If peace existed among equals with no loser it could lead to lasting peace
   (b) His plan included an international organization to preserve world peace.
   (2) All parties generally ignored Wilson's suggestions
   b. Gradually Wilson viewed it as a struggle of democracies against totalitarian states.
   (1) This was esp. true after Czar Nicholas abdicated the Russian throne and his government was replaced by a democratic government, led by Kerensky
   (2) This war was finally idealized as Crusade for Democracy
2. British Propaganda
   a. British and French control of most Trans-Atlantic cables made war news favor the Allies
   (1) Americans read of atrocities of the savage huns , but none of the Allies.
   (2) German propaganda usually emphasized hate and destruction.
   (3) Americans were told that when the Belgians challenged the German invasion of France through Belgium, Germany executed 5,000 civilians in retaliation
   (4) Americans read stories of torture, mutilations, and civilian murders committed by the Germans, some of which were made up by the British
   b. Some attempts at sabotage in the US by German agents were known
   (1) Dr. Heinrich F. Albert accidentally left a briefcase in a NY subway with documents, showing the existence of an extensive espionage and subversive activities network operating in the US, ready to be used.
   (2) Eric Muenter, a German instructor at Cornell University, exploded a bomb in the US Senate reception room and later shot American financier J.P. Morgan.
   c. Gradually, Germany was associated with navalism, militarism, aggression,(esp. after violating Belgium neutrality which had been guaranteed by several European nations since 1839) and authoritarianism (after all, was not Germany ruled by Kaiser Wilhelm II ).
   d. At the right time, Britain released information on the Zimmermann Telegram , between German Secretary of Foreign Affairs Alfred Zimmermann and German Minister to Mexico, with an offer to Mexico
   (1) If the US entered the war, Germany wanted Mexico to declare war on the US
   (2) In exchange for this, Germany offered to return to Mexico the American Southwest (CA, NM, TX, AZ, UT, NV, CO), after the war was over.
   (3) Although Mexico did not seriously consider this offer, information about it created much distaste for Germany among the US public
3. Economic Ties
   a. Germany had flooded world markets with cheap goods, earning the ire of US business.
   b. By 1913, 75% of American European trade had gone to Allied nations.
   c. Oct 1915 - US bankers loaned $500 million to Britain and France.
   d. The US traded primarily with the Allies and loaned them $2.3 billion, while providing the Central powers with only $275 million in loans and credits.
   e. An Allied defeat was perceived to have a serious affect on the US economy
4. Diplomatic Rapproachment
   a. Since the Civil War, the US and Britain had realized that cooperation between them was most beneficial to both sides.
   b. Britain was the only European nation to side with the US in its war with Spain.
   c. Unofficially Britain had allowed the Monroe Doctrine to be enforced after it's declaration, before the US could enforce it.
   d. Britain did not resist the US desire to build a Central American canal, recognizing the US claim in the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty
   e. After his wife died, President Wilson received condolences from the British Prime Minister, having lost a wife himself.
5. Submarine Warfare - ***most important reason***
   a. British naval superiority did not allow the US to trade freely with both sides
   (1) Their blockade slowly strangled Germany and the Central Powers.
   (2) Britain seized neutral ships to search for contraband, the list of which was constantly expanded to include a greater variety of items.
   (3) Although the US always protested these searches as a violation of international law, it was a moderate protest and Britain offered to pay for any seized items.
   (4) No American lives were lost as a result of this action by Britain.
   b. The Germans, unable to challenge British naval superiority, resorted to a new weapon -- untersee boat (U-Boat) or submarine.
   (1) No international laws for the use of the submarine had been written.
   (2) If the same laws applied, allowing crews to leave a ship safely before a ship was sunk, the U-boat was made extremely vulnerable to deck guns of ships.
   (3) Germany relied increasingly on surprise attack, declaring waters around Britain a war zone in Feb 1915 and warning ships to enter at their own risk
   (4) By May, nearly ninety ships were sunk without warning.
   c. Britain countered the submarine by arming its merchant ships, by shipping supplies on passenger lines and by operating under the flag of a neutral nation.
   d. US reaction to the use of submarines and to the war zone was protest
   (1) Wilson declared that Germany would be held to strict accountability for the loss of US lives and ships.
   (2) Americans agreed it was barbaric to kill civilians and believed that neutral citizens had the right to cross the Atlantic on any ship desired.
   e. 7 May 1915 - Americans were shocked when the British passenger liner, Lusitania , was sunk off of Ireland, losing 1,198 of 1,924 lives, including 128 Americans and 63 infants
   (1) In violation of international law, the ship was carrying 4,200 cases of small arms ammunition as well as other kinds of ammunition.
   (2) Germans had warned in newspapers not to travel on ships entering the war zone
   (3) Wilson was misled into believing that no arms were on this ship at all, and the German sinking was referred to as "piracy" and "mass murder."
   f. By May 13, Wilson no longer opposed a US military buildup.
   (1) He demanded that Germany disavow the sinking, indemnify victims and stop attacking passenger vessels.
   (2) 8 Jun 1915 - Increasingly, US actions appeared less neutral and more pro-Allied causing Secretary of State Williams Jennings Bryan to resign in protest
   (3) The threatening tone of these demands on Germany was the final action that led Bryan to resign and Robert Lansing became Secretary of State.
   (4) By mid-Aug, the British liner the Arabic was sunk with two Americans lost
   (5) Within one year, Germany apologized and promised to pay indemnity.
   g. Sussex Pledge -- After the French channel steamer Sussex was sunk in March 1916, Germany pledged to stop sinking merchant ships without warning
   (1) Germany abided by the agreement for nine months.
   (2) The US did nothing about Germany's request that Allies respect international law in their unlawful blockade.
   h. Wilson still hoped for a negotiated settlement -- his Peace Without Victory plan
   (1) The land war had stalemated in mud-choked trenches with neither side gaining an advantage over the other.
   (2) Jan 1917 - Wilson called upon all belligerents to stop fighting and work for world peace with no winners or losers.
   i. Resumption of Submarine Warfare 1 Feb 1917
   (1) 31 Jan - Risking US participation in the war, Germany announced a resumption of surprise submarine attacks on merchant ships, believing that the Allies could be finished off before the US could enter the war.
   (2) Wilson threatened to break off diplomatic relations with Germany if submarine warfare resumed.
   (3) 3 Feb - Germany sank the steamship Housatonic , in effect calling Wilson's bluff and the US broke off diplomatic relations with Germany
   (4) 100 submarines resumed attacking without warning, but no overt acts against US ships occurred, which made Wilson reluctant to push for war.
G. Final Steps to the American Declaration of War
1. 24 Feb - Zimmerman telegram, given to Wilson, convinced him that Germany was irrevocably the enemy of the US.
2. 26 Feb - The day after the Laconia was sunk with the loss of American lives, Wilson asked Congress for authorization to arm US merchant ships, but Senate debate bogged down.
3. 1 Mar - Zimmerman Telegram was released to the American press.
4. 4 Mar - Wilson was inaugurated for a second term, but Congress adjourned before passing the Armed Ship Bill
5. 9 Mar - Wilson signed an Executive Order, which armed US merchant ships
6. 12 Mar - Russian government changed to a democracy, led by Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky , recognized by the US on 22 March
7. 18-21 Mar - 4 unarmed US merchant ships sunk (City of Memphis , Vigilante , Illinois , Healton )
8. Democratic newspapers called for war, stating, "The only difference between war and what we have now is that we are not fighting back."
9. 2 April - Wilson asked a special session of Congress for a declaration of war against Germany
   a. The House voted 373-50 with opposition from the German populated regions of Illinois, Wisconsin, Missouri and Minnesota, as well as by pacifist Jeannette Rankin (MT).
   b. The Senate voted 82-6 for war.
   c. Wilson had idealized the war as a crusade to Make the World Safe for Democracy calling this a War to End All Wars .

IV. Americans during the Great War
A. Americans in the Military

1. Mobilization of the Armed Forces
   a. Selective Service Act 18 May 1917
   (1) After serious debate for six weeks, Congress authorized the registration and classification for military service all men between ages 21 and 30 inclusive.
   (a) 5 June 1917 - 9,586,508 men were enrolled;
   (b) 5 June 1918 - another million + were added to the rolls
   (c) 31 Aug - The Manpower Act extended registration to ages 18-45
   (d) 12 Sept - 13,228,762 were added to the rolls.
   (2) Of 24,234,021 registered men, 2,810,296 served in the military
   (3) Jan 1918 - Arver vs US upheld the Selective Service Act, citing Congress's power to "raise and support armies".
   b. The first draftees completed training on 24 June and were sent to Europe with Gen. John J. Pershing , commander of American Expeditionary Force (AEF ), which supported the French and British but not integrated into their forces, remaining separate.
2. American troops arrive in Europe
   a. 4 July - COL Charles Stanton landed stating Lafayette We Are Here!
   Gen Pershing arrived in Paris in Sept and set up positions near Verdun by Oct.
   b. 27 Oct - The first US soldiers fired shots with the first casualties on 3 Nov.
   c. Gen Douglas MacArthur commanded the Rainbow Division , composed of men from all 48 states and 3 US territories.
3. US Navy
   a. By April 1918, German U-Boats were brought under control by US destroyers which reduced Allied shipping losses to less than 300,000 tons per month.
   b. Merchant men were sent across the Atlantic only in convoys screened by warships.
   c. US troops transported across the Atlantic suffered not a single loss of life.
4. Last Year of the War -- Nov 1917-18
   a. Nov 1917 - Fall of Kerensky -- Allied pressure kept Russia in the war when people were cold and hungry and led to the unpopular government's overthrow by the Bolsheviks.
   b. Dec 1917 - the US declared war on Austria-Hungary
   c. Jan 1918 - Wilson before a joint session of Congress announced his Fourteen Points , guidelines for setting up a new world order after the war.
   (1) No secret agreements in the future
   (2) A reduction in military arms
   (3) A reduction of worldwide trade barriers (the open door for the world)
   (4) Complete freedom of the seas in peace and war
   (5) Adjustment of colonial claims (territorial adjustments in Europe and Near East)
   (a) Restore captured Russian territory and welcome Russia into the society of free nations;
   (b) Restore Belgium's neutrality;
   (c) Readjust Italy's frontiers according to nationality;
   (d) Return Alsace-Lorraine to France;
   (e) Autonomy for the diverse peoples of Austria-Hungary;
   (f) Rearrange Balkan boundaries according to nationality
   (g) Give Serbia access to the sea;
   (h) Autonomous development for nationalities under Turkish rule and free passage through the Dardanelles for the ships of all nations;
   (i) Recognize Polish independence with access to the sea
   (6) **most important** general association of nations to oversee a new world order, guaranteeing political independence and territorial integrity to all nations equally, regardless of size.
   d. 3 March 1918 - Although previously agreeing not to do so in the Pact of Paris, Russia signed a separate peace treaty with Germany, Brest-Litovsk , freeing its eastern front.
   (1) Although fourteen Allied nations had intervened in Soviet Russia, in an effort to aid anti-Bolshevik White forces in the winter of 1917-18, they did not prevent the Bolshevik Revolution from taking over and ending Russian participation in the war.
   (2) Although Wilson twice sent US troops into the Soviet Union as part of the Allied effort, he persuaded the Allies to abandon their interventionist attempts.
5. End of the War
   a. Germany launched a spring counter-offensive.
   (1) By late May, the Germans were within 50 miles of Paris, before being repelled by the AEF, using only 27,500 US troops
   (2) July - A second German attempt was repelled by 85,000 Americans
   b. An Allied counter offensive flattened the German bulge, using 270,000 US GIs
   c. Late Aug - 500,000 AEFs faced Germans along the Saint-Mihiel Salient.
   d. 12 Sept - the French and Americans wiped out the German forces.
   e. Sept-Nov 1918 - The greatest engagement of American forces in the war took place in the Argonne Forest along the Mellse River.
   f. 9 Oct - Kaiser abdicated to a provisional government of Prince Max of Baden
   g. 1 Nov - the German center crumbled
   (1) 4 Nov - Austria-Hungary surrendered
   (2) 11 Nov - Germany signed an armistice, not a surrender -- the fighting stopped.
   (3) Nov 11 was Armistice Day , although Veterans Day is celebrated now.
6. Cost of the War
   a. Casualties - Both sides suffered 20 million missing and wounded
   (1) Allies - 42.1 million served/5.1 million dead/12.8 million wounded/4.1 missing (Great Britain (+Commonwealth) - 947,000 dead; France - 1.38 million dead; Russia - 1.7 million dead; Italy - 325,000 dead)
   (2) Central Powers - 65 million served/8.5 million dead/21.2 wounded/7.7 missing (Germany - 1.8 million dead; Austria-Hungary - 1.2 million dead; Turkey - 325,000 dead)
   (3) US - of 2 million+ in uniform, 1.3 million saw action with 112,432 dead (over half from disease, mostly the influenza-pneumonia epidemic than swept US military camps) and 230,074 wounded.
   b. Total war costs, excluding pensions, $41,755,000,000 (with total US direct war expenditures from Apr 1917 - Apr 1919 at $21,850,000,000).