VI. Rise of American Imperialism
A. Sources of Pressure on America to Become Imperialist

1. Commercial /Business Interests
   a. Overproduction resulted in periodic economic depression which underscored the need for new markets, especially overseas.
   b. As industry expanded, new sources of raw materials were needed
   c. American increasingly looked to Latin America and to East Asia, esp. China.
2. Military or Strategic Interests
   a. CPT Alfred Thayer Mahan Influence of Sea Power upon History 1660-1783 (1890) traced Britain's growth as a world power, linking it to growth as a sea power
   (1) If the US were to emerge as a world power, an expanded navy was needed
   (2) Increased demand for an isthmian canal to bring Pacific and Atlantic coasts together.
   (3) If the US were to be a major sea power, an increase in harbors, refueling and repair stations, trade ships. etc. around the world would be needed
   b. Mahan also wrote Influence of Sea Power On The French Revolution and Empire (1892)
3. Religious or Missionary Interests
   a. The missionary impulse saw as the white man's burden the need to bring "civilization" to the less advantaged peoples of the world
   b. Civilization meant "White Anglo-Saxon Protestantism "
4. Ideas of Social Darwinism
   a. Darwin's ideas (survival of the fittest ; Iron Law of the jungle ) were extended to human society in general -- the earth belonged to the strongest and the fittest.
   b. Its chief exponent was Yale Sociology professor William Graham Sumner (1840-1910), a former Episcopalian priest.
   (1) He advocated no government aid to industry, nor interference with business.
   (2) If left alone, the most efficient individuals would survive in every field of human endeavor.
5. Closing of the American Frontier
   a. Census of 1890 observed that the American frontier had come to a close.
   b. Based on this notion, Frederick Jackson Turner, history professor, postulated that the American system, its political and industrial institutions and democratic traditions, had existed on a frontier.
   (1) At the Chicago symposium 1893, Turner addressed the American Historical Association with "The Significance of the Frontier American History."
   (2) The states faced a crisis with the closing of that frontier.
   c. Rev. Josiah Strong Our Country: Its Present Crisis Its Possible Future (1886) dealt with the question, "When and how should American begin to look beyond its continental boundaries to the world beyond?"
   (1) He suggested that the US look overseas for its future.
   (2) Influenced by the views of Herbert Spencer, he considered the Anglo-Saxon people to be superior and picked by God to lead the world
   (3) The US should spread its values and religion to others.
   (4) He was racist, chauvinistic, greedy and had millennial expectations.
6. Conclusion
   a. The serious panic of 1893, increased labor unrest with its violence and the clamor of the farm movement, lent support for the suggestion the America faced a crisis.
   b. Americans found a new frontier -- Overseas .
   c. The empire built by the US differed from the type maintained by Britain.
   (1) American imperialism was an informal empire .
   (2) The British empire required vast territorial holdings, with costly administrative holdings and large military presence to maintain.
B. Beginnings Of The Drive for Overseas Expansion
1. Secretary of State William Seward under Johnson and Lincoln
   a. Seward favored a US empire in North America including Canada, the Caribbean, esp. Cuba, Hawaii and other Pacific Islands, Greenland, Iceland and Mexico
   (1) When Archduke Maximilian (1832-67), younger brother of Austria's Emperor, became emperor of Mexico in 1864 at the request of Mexico's conservatives, supported by Napoleon III and French troops, Seward protested after the Civil War.
   (2) In 1866, the US sent 50,000 troops to the Rio Grande and threatened to invade.
   (3) After the French withdrew its support in 1867, Maximilian was shot by order of the Mexican leader, Benito Juarez .
   b. Seward propelled the US into a more secure position with the purchase of Alaska in 1867 from Russia for $7.2 million.
   (1) Its long range value was not clearly known and Seward was severely criticized.
   (2) Alaska was known as "Seward's Folly " and "Seward's Icebox ."
   c. Seward also secured the rights to the Midway Islands in 1867.
2. Grant favored adding Santo Domingo to the US but a treaty of annexation was rejected 28 - 28.
3. Descendants of New England Missionaries to Hawaii in the 1820s greatly influenced native monarchs and their policies.
   a. A commercial treaty was arranged between Congress and Hawaii in 1849
   (1) The US recognized the independence of the Hawaiian Islands.
   (2) In reality, Hawaii became a protectorate of the US
   b. Reciprocity Treaty 1875 between the US and Hawaii allowed sugar from Hawaii to enter the US duty free in exchange for a promise not to give any territory to other foreign powers
   c. Its renewal in 1887 secured the US rights to a naval base at Pearl Harbor .
   d. A successful revolt led by a white minority in 1893 resulted in the removal of the native monarch, Queen Liliuokalani .
   (1) John L. Stivers, US minister to Hawaii, recognized the new provisional government, which petitioned the US for annexation.
   (2) Republic of Hawaii was established in 1894.
   e. Annexation was delayed primarily because of opposition by President Cleveland whose research found that a majority of native Hawaiians opposed annexation.
   f. Hawaii, annexed in 1898 by joint resolution of Congress, was used as a naval deposit during the Spanish American War.
C. Opposition to Annexation
1. In the national debate over annexation of Hawaii, anti-Imperialists were sharply critical of the trend toward imperialism and raised three arguments against it.
   a. Imperialistic policy was designed for special interest groups , [i.e., sugar growers of Hawaii].
   b. Imperialism represented a dangerous departure from American tradition by forcibly incorporating foreign peoples into the US
   c. Bringing non-Anglo-Saxon-Protestant peoples into the US will imperil the American value system
2. While critics envisioned a slow transformation into a militant empire requiring a large standing army, supporters of imperialism ignored the arguments of its opponents.
D. Problems in South America
1. Pan-American Union 1889 - First US effort to assume hemispheric leadership
   a. Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard in July 1888 invited the Latin American nations to an inter-American conference, scheduled in Washington DC in 1889.
   b. Secretary of State James G. Blaine established an international bureau designed to promote commercial and cultural exchanges between the US and Latin America.
   c. This effort to assume leadership was viewed with suspicion by Latin America.
2. Trouble in Chile 1891
   a. A Chilean mob attacked sailers from the USS Baltimore , killing two and wounding 12.
   b. After Chile's reluctance to meet US demands for an apology and reparations for damages, Harrison sent a war message to Congress
   c. Chile apologized and agreed to pay damages, but Pan-American goodwill was damaged.
3. Venezuela-British Guiana Boundary Dispute l895
   a. The US displayed increased aggressiveness when a boundary dispute between Great Britain and Venezuela flared up again, after gold was discovered in the disputed area.
   (1) The exact boundary had been disputed since the 1830s but the area was again seriously threatened with war in 1895.
   (2) Secretary of State Richard Olney, citing the Monroe Doctrine, declared that the US would arbitrate the dispute, threatening war with Britain if not agreeable
   (3) London, facing hostilities in Europe allowed the U.S. to arbitrate the boundary.
   b. A US Commission awarded most of the disputed territory to British Guiana, forging an era of Anglo-American friendship, but further dampening US-Latin American relations.
E. Spanish-American War 1898
1. Newspaper Circulation Wars - 1895-97
   a. William Randolph Hearst (New York Journal ) challenged Josef Pulitzer (1847-l911) (St.Louis Post-Dispatch ; New York World ) for readership
   (1) Press war sympathized with Cuban "freedom fighters" rebelling against Spain
   (2) Both engaged in sensationalism or yellow journalism (human interest stories involving scandal, or crimes - sensational exposes)
   (3) Consistent newspaper themes stressed the Spanish contempt. for Americans, Spanish brutality against Cubans and the glorious escapades of Cuba's rebels.
2. New Spanish Policy - Reconcentrado
   a. 1896 - Cuban rebels proved effective in guerrilla warfare against Spain's government in Cuba
   b. Spain sent a new military governor to Cuba, Valeriano Weyler .
   (1) His martial law and reconcentrado policies caused the deaths of many civilians, primarily due to poor sanitation in the concentration camps.
   (2) Such deaths earned the governor the nickname, Butcher Weyler .
   c. McKinley hesitated to go to war with Spain, seeking a diplomatic solution to the Cuban problem
   (1) McKinley desired the removal of Weyler, the abandonment of reconcentrado , and possibly home rule for Cubans.
   (2) The New Spanish premier met the US conditions.
   Steps to War 1898
   a. Jan - USS Maine was ordered to Havana harbor on a friendly mission, although it was preparing to evacuate American citizens in the face of increasing riots against Spain.
   b. Rebels released a captured letter to Hearst's Journal written by Spain's Ambassador to the US, Senor Depuy de Lome , to a friend in Cuba.
   (1) In it the ambassador criticized the US president as a weak leader.
   (2) Although essentially a true assessment of McKinley, the letters touched off a storm of protest in the US against Spain, forcing De Lome to resign his post.
   c. 15 Feb - USS Maine mysteriously blew up in Havana harbor, killing 260 Americans.
   (1) A Naval commission suggested that it was destroyed by a Spanish submarine.
   (2) Although the US refused to let them near the ship, Spain's investigation claimed that it had exploded internally, not externally, and called it an accidental sinking.
   (3) Arbitration was spurned by the US government
   (4) A 1976 investigation by Admiral Rickover essentially agreed with the Spanish findings, that the USS Maine sank as the result of an internal explosion.
   d. Final Steps to a Declaration of War
   (1) 27 Mar - the US sent several demands to Spain
   (2) 9 Apr - the Governor General of Cuba offered the Spanish rebels an armistice.
   (3) 10 Apr - Spain indicated a willingness to negotiate over Cuba's independence.
   (4) 11 Apr - McKinley's war message to Congress called for US intervention to help free the oppressed Cubans, having correctly perceived a pro-war attitude among Americans
   (5) 19-20 Apr - War was declared against Spain
   (6) 24 Apr - Spain declared war on the US
   e. Critics of the War
   (1) Congress was not unanimous in its declaration, because many members feared that the US might be improperly perceived by the international community as ganging up on a weaker nation to gain territory.
   (2) Teller Amendment , passed to soothe the critics, guaranteed Cuba's independence, stating that the US had no designs on Cuba.
   f. Conduct of the War
   (1) The war lasted only 113 days
   (a) John Hay , US ambassador to England, had written Theodore Roosevelt referring to it as "a splendid little war."
   (b) Under-Secretary of Navy Theodore Roosevelt resigned to participate in the fighting.
   (2) Two theaters of operation existed
   (a) Caribbean - US casualties resulted more from disease and exposure than from battle.
   i) Cuba - Remember the Maine - Admiral Cervera, Spanish commander, was easily defeated.
   ii) Puerto Rico - Theodore Roosevelt led the Rough Riders up San Juan hill
   (b) Philippines
   i) Emilio Aguinaldo (1869-1964) was returned from exile to aid Filipino insurrectionists against Spain
   ii) 1 May 1898 - Commodore George Dewey (1837-1917) led the Pacific fleet and quickly demolished the Spanish navy there.
   g. End of the War
   (1) An armistice was signed on 12 August 1898.
   (2) A treaty, signed on 10 Dec, was ratified by the US Senate on 6 Feb 1899, by a vote of 57-27, one more than needed.
   h. Results of the War
   (1) Spain received $20 million for the Philippines, because technically Spain did not end the fighting until one day after the armistice was signed.
   (a) The US continued to occupy the Philippines, which drew the anger of Aguinaldo, who then led insurrectionists against the US
   (b) 1899 - 1901 - William Howard Taft was the first civilian governor.
   (c) The Philippines were granted independence in 1946 and became an independent commonwealth in 1952 under Ferdinand Marcos
   (2) Cuba was declared independent, with some qualifications
   (a) Platt Amendment replaced the Teller Amendment, and required Cuba to accept three things before US troops would be withdrawn
   i) The US retained veto power over Cuba's foreign policy
   ii) The US retained the right to intervene into Cuba's internal affairs
   iii) The US received rights to build a naval base on the east at Guantanamo Bay
   (b) Cuba put these into its new constitution, and they remained in force until 1934 when renegotiated.
   (c) General Leonard Wood (1860-1927), military governor until 1902, modernized sugar production, improved sanitary conditions and established several schools.
   (d) In 1903 Guantanamo Bay naval station was leased (renewed in 1934).
   (3) Guam and Puerto Rico were also transferred to the US as territories
   (a) Foraker Act 1900 granted Puerto Rico limited self-government, in that they elected a 35-member lower house, but the US President appointed their governor and executive council.
   (b) Jones Act 1917 granted US citizenship to all Puerto Ricans and removed tariff duties from Puerto Rican imports into the US
   i. Cost of the War
   (1) The US spent $250 million
   (2) Of 274,000 men, 5,462 died (362 in battle) and 1,604 were wounded.
F. American Far Eastern Policy
1. The acquisition of the Philippines gave the US an interest in the Far Eastern affairs of the Pacific rim nations
2. Open Door Policy
   a. Republic of China had a weak central government in 1900
   b. Japan and several European nations had carved China into spheres of influence, controlling local political leaders in return for special trading privileges.
   c. Secretary of State John Hay sent diplomatic dispatches to these nations, asking that they guarantee two things:
   (1) Give all nations equal access to trade in China
   (2) Prevent the political takeover of China by any one foreign power
   d. 1900 - Anti-foreigner Boxer Rebellion
   (1) A Chinese nationalist rebellion was put down by the combined forces of Great Britain, Russia, France, Japan and the US, which furnished 2,500 troops.
   (2) Hays again asked these powers to preserve China's political integrity and to allow equal access to trade in all of China.
   e. Although the nations were slow to respond to Hays' suggestions, they did not flatly refuse his "Open Door Policy."
   f. This policy marked a major departure from traditional American isolationism.