V. Corporate Capitalism - a new economic system emerged between 1880-1920 which made the US the industrial leader of the world after World War I
A. Introduction

1. Industrialization
   a. Widespread use of corporations resulted in the birth of Big Business, which allowed investors to invest with limited liability, and allowed diverse kinds of business activity.
   b. The expanded use of technology brought an expanded means of transportation and development of a greater means of communication
   c. Standardized time developed.
   d. An agricultural declined changed the public image of the farmer.
   (1) Pre-Civil War - yeoman farmers = rugged, independent.
   (2) Post-War - farmers, no longer considered to be the ideal American, were increasingly thought of as hay seed, rednecks, hicks, leading to political decline.
   e. The loss of political clout by rural society led to the growth of Farmer's Alliances and the Granger Movement, and later the Populist Movement.
2. Immigration - the rise of American industry attracted immigrants from a number of economically depressed areas of the world (especially Russia and Italy), which provided Big Business with a cheap labor force of unskilled laborers.
   a. New Immigration - a reference to immigrants coming from less desirable countries, Eastern and Southeastern Europe, Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Jewish Immigrants
   (1) The US population in 1900 (76 million) had doubled since 1860.
   (2) "Native" Americans feared that this influx of immigrants would alter the face and culture of America.
   b. Reaction by older native-born Americans
   (1) Nativism - Reaction of "native" Americans to the influx of immigrants from Southeastern Europe and Asia
   (2) Anglo - Centric Society
   (a) Increased immigration led to friction with "older" Americans (mostly from British Isles)
   (b) W (hite) A (nglo) S (axon) P (rotestant)s saw their institu-tions ethnically, culturally, legally linked with Britain.
   (c) Other kinds of immigrants were seen as inferior, a threat to the "American" way of life.
3. Urbanization
   a. Immigrants flocked to Northern cities, giving a sense of uncontrolled growth
   (1) Chicago in 1860 had 100,000, but by 1900 had 1 million population.
   (2) The immigrants often settled in ethnic enclaves or ghettos.
   b. New cities developed along this ethnical pattern which resulted in poor, inadequate housing, in slums as areas deteriorated, in inadequate social services decreasing health care and sanitation, all of which led to political corruption.
   c. "Bossism " developed.
   (1) A political boss, heading a well-oiled political machine, maintained power through voter manipulation, corruption and graft.
   (2) But some social services and protections were provided
   d. Examples of Political bosses
   (1) William Marcy ("Boss" ) Tweed (1823-78) - NY City 1873 - After charges of corruption he fled to Spain but was extradited to face a prison term.
   (2) "Big Tim" Sullivan, ward boss in NY (lower eastside), brought in the vote by giving immigrants dinners, offering a job placement service, new shoes, and in return, politicians allowed him a free hand in gambling and liquor businesses
   (3) Abe Ruef - political boss of San Francisco in the early l900s
4. Unionization
   a. Few effective national union efforts occurred before the Civil War.
   b. As industry increased and pursued the maximization of profits, workers were short-changed in benefits and safety which gave rise to the growth of national unions as tooIs for collective bargaining against Big Business and ruthless business tycoons.
   c. Workers had only one effective tool - "strike" ("lay down ones tools".)
   d. Employers had several options:
   (1) shut-down or lock-out
   (2) use of strike-breakers
   (3) A private militia to bully picketers (Pinkertons - "eye that never sleeps" - were often a private militia for business).
   (4) "Yellow-dog contracts" - when hired, workers promised not to join a union.
   (5) Court injunctions - usually favored business owners, citing the strike as an illegal restraint of trade, forcing workers to return to work or face fail and/or fines.
   e. Labor unions in the gilded age divided over what approach to take in organizing
   (1) Who should be included - all workers or restricted somehow? skilled only or unskilled too?
   (a) Because immigrants and Southern Blacks were often strikebreakers, unions usually fostered anti-immigrant, anti-black sentiments;
   (b) Immigrants were often reluctant to be organized, being willing to work longer hours for less pay to get established in their new location;
   (c) women - although there was a push to include women in all-inclusive unions, the prevailing social attitude defined the "woman's sphere" as the home, at the hearth the core of the family as protector, guardian, nurturer of the family, an attitude that pressureds unions to exclude them.
   (2) How should unions be structured - what goals?
   (a) Improve worker conditions and benefits only - pure and simple unionism .
   (b) Move beyond the marketplace to effect changes in the American economic system.
5. Imperialism -- Manifest Destiny had in the 1840s-50s carried the US from sea to shining sea.
   a. With the close of the frontier (US Census in 1890), a new Manifest Destiny emerged which fit into the American ideal of imperialism and sought overseas expansion.
   b. The American type of empire, however, differed from the British type.
   (1) US imperialism was an informal empire
   (2) The British system required vast territorial holdings, with costly administrations and a large military presence to maintain.
   (3) Americans sought to spread the gospel of the American system, our Democratic institutions and use the US dollar to obtain economic allies without large military and administrative establishments.
B. Rise of Big Business - Although no section of the US in the last quarter of the 19th-century was immune from the impact of railroads, growth of factories, development of new technology, influx of immigrants and rapid rise of industrialization, the Northeastern US was most affected by these changes.
1. Growth Factors - Produced goods 1860-1900 went from $1.9 - 11.4 billion
   a. Northern industry expanded to meet the demands of the Civil War.
   b. A steady influx of immigrants supplied cheap labor for increased demands of production
   c. A pro-Business Republican party held the Presidency for all but 8 years (1865 - 1900), providing higher tariffs on imported foreign goods
   d. New markets in Latin America, Canada and Asia increased US manufactured exports
   e. Politicians loss of clout by the Civil Service Commission, led to a search for other supporters to regain that influence, leading the party which dominated the White House and many times both houses of Congress, the Republicans, to support Big Business.
2. Individual Businesses
   a. Railroads - the first big business - By 1900 railroads were valued at just under $10 billion or 1/10 of the nation's wealth, with 200,000 miles of track in operation
   (1) Benefits to the nation brought by railroads
   (a) The purchase of locomotives and railroad cars created thousands of jobs
   (b) The demand for rails and cars led to the growth of the steel industry, encouraging regional development around the supplies of raw materials in Alabama near Birmingham, in Pennsylvania near Pittsburgh and elsewhere.
   (c) The railroads opened up the west for settlement by selling surplus land cheaply and on easy payments terms, often sending agents to Europe to advertise which attracted immigrants who settled on railroad lands.
   (d) Railroads accelerated technological advances (Westinghouse Airbrake, Pullman sleeping cars, a refrigerator car patented by Wm Davis).
   (e) Communications was expanded from coast to coast -- Western Union strung lines along railroad tracks in exchange for free telegraph service.
   (f) The railroads knit the nation into a single marketplace with its transcontinental connections which fostered industrial growth
   i) By 1900 one could travel to any part of the US in relative ease
   ii) Rates fell as much as 70% from the 1860s.
   (2) The development of big railroad companies
   (a) The railroad system was financed by stock sales and government subsidies of land and loans.
   i) The government loaned $60 million to railroad companies.
   ii) The US government also gave away 158,293,377 acres of prime farmland, rich timberland and substantial waterways to the railmen.
   (b) This system encouraged corruption as construction companies inflated prices and entrepreneurs built new lines recklessly into unproductive areas.
   (c) Eventually companies plagued by mismanagement were swallowed up by more aggressive companies until a few railroad giants existed in 1900.
   i) First to form a giant railroad company -- "Commodore" Cornelius Vanderbilt , who made an earlier fortune in steamboats.
   (1) He formed the NY Central System which controlled Northeastern transportation and Western Union between Chicago and NY.
   (2) He built no new lines, but acquired controlling interest in rundown railroads combining and selling them as a package.
   ii) Other companies emerged by 1900.
   (1) Pennsylvania Group - PA; Baltimore and Ohio; Chesapeake and Ohio
   (2) Morgan Roads - Erie + Southern
   Gould System - Missouri Pacific
   (4) Rock Island System
   (5) Hill Roads - Great Northern + Northern Pacific + Burlington
   (6) Harriman Roads - Union Pacific + Southern Pacific + Illinois Central
   (3) Not every railroad took government subsidies of land
   (a) James J. Hill built the only transcontinental railroad from the Great Lakes to the Pacific without public lands
   (b) Great Northern Railroad was economically built, carefully planned.
   (4) Quickly the railroads became the enemy of the farmer who constantly clamored for the federal government to regulate and eventually to own the railroads.
   (a) Where competition existed, rates were competitive, but where service was done by one carrier only, maximum rates would be charged, thereby creating the condition where in many cases a short haul cost more to ship than a long haul.
   (b) Deception and fraud were the rule of the day because unpublished rates were often used which favored larger shippers with rebates.
   b. Oil
   (1) Its development
   (a) Edwin Drake drilled the first successful oil well in PA in 1859.
   (b) 1870s -- Cleveland OH became the center of oil refining.
   (2) John Davison Rockefeller (1839-1937) brought order and stability to a wasteful and often violent industry when he bought and merged 70 companies into Standard Oil of Ohio , the first trust.
   (a) As a result of price wars and ruthless business practices, Rockefeller controlled almost 90% of the nation's refineries by 1879, when the trust was formed.
   (b) He spied on his competitor's to ruin them, demanded and received rebates from railroads and built his own factories and warehouses to eliminate the middleman
   (3) The elder philanthropic Rockefeller gave $550 million to the University of Chicago and four foundations
   c. Steel
   (1) Development of the steel industry
   (a) In the 1850s, two men, American William Kelly and Englishman Henry Bessemer , independent of each other, developed the open hearth method, which forced a blast of cold air into molten metal removing more carbon impurities
   (b) Plants opened near sources of iron ore and coal in PA, near Pittsburg and in TN and VA and near Birmingham AL.
   (c) With the precise control of carbon removal, cheaper iron ore could be used.
   (2) Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919) -- Leader in the Steel Industry
   (a) Carnegie exercised direct control over his company, allowing only close friends to be stock holders, using a system of partnerships to integrate a production line, which combined coal and ore mines, limestone quarries, coke ovens, ore-carrying ships and railroads.
   (b) 1901 - Carnegie sold his holdings to a J.P. Morgan (1837-1913) combine who created US Steel , the first billion dollar corporation.
   (c) Carnegie followed the "Stewardship of Wealth", turning to philanthropy
   i) "Gospel of Wealth" -- a concentration of wealth was needed if humanity were to progress, but the rich were obligated to use their wealth for the public's benefit.
   ii) He disposed of $350 of $400 million before his death, endowing libraries, building public buildings and establishing foundations.
   d. Electricity
   (1) With the development of a cheap long-life incandescent bulb, Thomas Alva Edison (1847-l93l) formed the Edison Company, opening his first commercial electric station in NY City in 1882, using direct current, low voltage electricity.
   (2) His chief competitor George Westinghouse (1846-1914) developed the use of alternating currents in 1886, with his Westinghouse Electric Company
   (3) Between 1889-92, J.P. Morgan financed the merger of several interests and competi-tors with Edison to form the General Electric Company .
   e. Communications and Entertainment Industry
   (1) Edison and George Eastman perfected a motion picture camera (kinetograph)
   (2) Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) developed the telephone in combination with a carbon transmitter which improved voice quality.
   (a) This plus a switchboard made the telephone commercially feasible.
   i) In 1880, 50,000 phones were in use in the US
   ii) By 1890, 250,000 phones were in use.
   iii) By 1900, 800,000 phones were in use.
   (b) 1885 - Bell and Associates consolidated over 100 companies to form the American Telegraph and Telephone Company , communications giant by 1900.
   f. Meatpacking Industry
   (1) Three phases of the meatpacking industry developed
   (a) slaughtering - packing
   (b) storage - distribution
   (c) byproducts.
   (2) Gustavus Franklin Swift established Swift and Co in Chicago, perfected the use of ice-cooled refrigerator cars in 1877, shipped the first load of dressed beef to Boston in warm weather and greatly enhanced the growing TX cattle industry
   g. Other Industries
   (1) flour milling-
   (a) After 1870, wheat grown in Minnesota and the Dakotas made Minneapolis the "flour" capital of the US with the invention of the middling purifier.
   (b) By the 1890s, Kansas City used wheat grown in the Central Plains and the Southwest rivalled Minneapolis.
   (2) Canning and food preservation industry
   (a) The Union army required huge quantities of canned goods which greatly enhanced the growth of this industry
   (b) Gail Borden opened a condensed milk factory in NY in 1861
   (c) By 1900, A.J. Heinz and others opened preservation plants which became widely acceptable as good canners.
   (3) Tobacco - first exported American crop
   (a) Tobacco returned prosperity to parts of the New South by aggressive advertising, new cigerette-making machines and exploiting new markets.
   (b) James B. Duke formed the American Tobacco Company (1890) which sold ready-rolled cigerettes and introduced coupons to be exchanged for premiums.
3. Industry in the South
   a. Southern economy remained agriculture with many tenant farmers.
   b. Industry in the South was discriminated against by the railroads whose shipping rates favored Northeastern industry.
   c. Cotton mills began to be built in the South near sources of raw materials
   (1) Northern investment capital was used
   (2) Southern labor remained cheap and non-unionized which made wages low and labor dependent
   (3) Mill-dominated towns emerged, often with managers from the North who ran the mills, and with profits flowing northward.
C. Early Attempts at Government Regulation
1. Introduction - Social Darwinism
   a. As Darwin's theories of evolution permeated the fabric of American society, the concepts, when applied to the social order, were more accepted.
   b. This allowed Big Business to prosper by creating trusts and monopolies through the destruction of competition in the marketplace.
   c. Eventually, a public outcry against ruthless practices of Big Business led to attempts to control the monopolistic tendencies of American industry.
2. Regulation of the Railroads - Began with the state legislatures
   a. Munn vs Ill 1876 - a partial victory for Midwestern grangers.
   (1) Supreme Court 7 - 2 upheld a state's police power to regulate private business through legislation
   (2) It upheld Illinois laws that set the rates elevator operators could charge their grain-producing customers
   (3) "When private property is affected with a public interest", it was not strictly private.
   b. Wabash [St. Louis & Pacific Railway Co] vs Ill 1886
   (1) The Supreme Court 6 - 3 restricted the state's power to regulate.
   (2) States had no power to regulate interstate railroad rates.
   (3) Regulating interstate shipment rates was an exclusive federal power.
   (4) The decision created the demand for a modern independent regulatory agency.
   c. Interstate Commerce Act 1887
   (1) Outlawed unfair discrimination against shippers with the use of rebates, pools, drawbacks and long-short haul discrepancies
   (2) Declared that railroad rates must be reasonable and just and published and could not be changed without sufficient public notice.
   (3) It created the Interstate Commerce Commission
   (a) First national regulatory commission was composed of five members.
   (b) It could haul railroads to court if rates were deemed unfair.
   (c) Although it had no real authority, ICC was an important precedent.
3. Regulation of Trusts and Monopolies -- Sherman Anti-Trust Act 1890
   a. It forbade business combinations which resulted in restraint of trade
   b. It did not recognize a good trust from a bad one.
   c. Although weak against Big Business, it was used effectively during the Gilded Age against unions, whose strikes were interpreted by the courts as a labor combination which restrained trade.
4. Supreme Court Limitations
   a. Application of the Anti-Trust law to union activities hindered the growth of unions and lessened their effectiveness as weapons against robber barons
   b. US vs E.C. Knight Co January 1895
   (1) The Court 8 - 1 ruled that the American Sugar Refining Company 's acquisition of the stock of its leading competitors, allowing it to control almost all sugar refining in the US, was not in violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act
   (2) Because the company operated totally in Hawaiian territory, it was outside federal interstate commerce jurisdiction.
   (3) The Court distinguished between manufacturing and commerce, allowing a company to sell its products in other states, but manufacture in another, and thus avoid federal regulations.
   (4) This decision paved the way for the great mergers of the 1890s.
D.Post-War Labor Movement
1. The labor shortage created by the Civil War increased the value of labor and enhanced the importance of unions, producing 32 national unions by 1872.
2. Some Notable Unions of the Gilded Age
   a. National Labor Union , organized in Baltimore MD in August 1866, lasted six years.
   (1) NLU combined skilled with unskilled + farmers (peak membership of 600,000)
   (2) Goals -- social reform - successful in getting an 8-hr day for federal employees.
   (3) The 1870s depression+ a lack of a good central organization led to its demise.
   b. Noble Order of the Knights of Labor 1869
   (1) Originally a secret organization led by Uriah S. Stephens , Knights of Labor took up the torch when the NLU folded.
   (2) It was all-inclusive except for liquor dealers, professional gamblers, lawyers, bankers and stockbrokers.
   (3) Because of the panic of 1873, railroads announced wage cuts in 1877, citing the lingering effects of the depression.
   (a) Workers protested a 10% pay cut, demanding better working conditions.
   (b) This strike involved the largest number of workers in the 19th century, popularizing the idea of a national union.
   (c) A 700% membership increase followed.
   (4) Knights of Labor's convention at Reading 1878 adopted an aggressive program
   (a) an eight-hour work day
   (b) health and safety legislation
   (c) equal pay for equal work (against sexism and racism)
   (d) abolition of child labor
   (e) government ownership of telegraphs, telephones and railroads.
   (5) In 1878, Terence Powderly emerged as its Grand Master.
   (6) Union Successes
   (a) The creation of the Bureau of Labor Standards
   (b) Sufficient pressure on Congress for the Chinese Exclusion Act
   (c) In 1884, 9000 successfully struck Jay Gould's Missouri-Pacific Railroad
   (7) They peaked in the Spring of 1886 with over 1 million members, but by 1890, had dwindled to only 100,000 members. Why?
   (a) Internal divisions and debates over the future of the union led to increased competition among the leadership and less successful strikes.
   (b) Haymarket Square Riot in Chicago 1886
   i) Powderly called for the Knights to particiapte in a planned one-day strike on 1 May in support of the eight-hour day. (40,000 to 60,000 participated)
   ii) 3 May -- six strikers were killed at the McCormick Reaper Manufacturing Company, after police fired into the crowd who had attacked strikebreakers
   iii) 4 May -- 13 - 1400 participated in a meeting at Haymarket Square, called by anarchist August Spies, Knights of Labor, and many socialists unions and international anarchists, protesting the use of police force to disperse strikers.
   (1) At 10 P.M. when 180 police arrived to order the crowd out, a bomb thrown into their midst killed 7, and wounded at least 60.
   (2) It was assumed that an anarchist threw the bomb and raids were conducted on all known radical groups, including trade union leaders.
   iv) Trial
   (1) Judge Joseph E. Gary presided over the trial of Samuel Fielden, speaking when the bomb was thrown, August Spies, Albert Parsons, Michael Schwab, Adoph fisher, George Engel, and Oscar Neebe, who were charged with conspiring to kill.
   (2) Although no evidence linked specific persons to the incident, the prosecution focused on their radical beliefs and advocacy of violence to achieve goals.
   (3) This political trial resulted in 7 convictions (the 8th defendant hung himself).
   (4) Four were sentenced to death (Spies, Parsons, Fisher, Engel), two to life in prison (Fielden, Schwab), one to 15 years (Neebe).
   (5) They are found guilty on the grounds that it is not necessary to plan a murder for members of a conspiracy to be murderers or accessories before the fact
   v) As a result, an anti-radical and anti-union feeling swept the American public mind.
   (1) Those advocating political changes were linked in the public mind with those who advocated economic changes.
   (2) Knights of Labor, having participated with anarchists in the 8-hour-day movement, were irreparably damaged
   vi) German-born Democrat Governor John P. Altgeld pardoned the three remaining survivors in 1893 after reviewing the case, which caused his defeat for reelection.
   (8) Gains of the Knights of Labor:
   (a) a new sense of power and unity emerged among rank and file workers.
   (b) influenced passage of legislation beneficial to workers
   (c) kept the concept of industrial unionism as an undercur-rent of the labor movement when it resurfaced in the l930s.
   c. Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions of the US
   (c) Samuel Gompers (1850-1924), Jewish cigar maker, conservative trade unionist, and Adolph Strasser , President of Cigar Makers International, desired an exclusive union of skilled workers rather than an all inclusive union. workers.
   (2) 1886 - Gompers established an organization composed of small unions of skilled craftsmen, not individual workers as members.
   (a) He was president until his death in 1924 (except 1895).
   (b) The federation did not use old rituals or secret societies.
   (3) Federation goals focused on economic issues only -- improved benefits (better wages and hours, closed shop, workman's compensation, outlawed injunction).
   (4) American Federation of Labor survived the Panic of 1893 and remained a viable union when the labor movement grew strong again in the 1930s.
   (5) 1900 -- 500,000 identified themselves as AF of L members.
3. Notable Strikes of the Gilded Age
   a. Homestead Strike - July 1892
   (1) 5,000 steelworkers struck Andrew Carnegie's steel plant near Pittsburg PA.
   (a) A pitched battle erupted between the strikers and 300 Pinkertons hired by plant manager Henry Clay Frick who had been hired to protect the strikebreakers.
   (b) Seven guards were killed.
   (2) 9 July - 7,000 state troopers were sent in by Governor Pattison
   (3) 15 July - the steel mill was reopened by strikebreakers.
   (4) By Nov 14, Frick had broken the 24,000-member Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers and the strike ended.
   b. Pullman Strike - 1894
   (1) George Pullman , Pullman Palace Car Co., had established a model town for his workers near Chicago which promoted a clean healthy atmosphere, giving Pullman a public image as a benevolent, paternalistic industrial captain.
   (2) The panic of 1893, worse in US history at that time, caused a wage cut by 1/3, but no lower rent on company housing nor price reduction at company stores.
   (3) When Pullman fired a suspected union organizer, a strike grew ugly by 1894.
   (4) Eugene Debs , leader of the American Railway Union , aided strikers by refusing to handle railroads using Pullman cars, encouraging other unions to join.
   (5) The strike was ended by a court injunction, based on the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, after which President Cleveland sent in 10,000 federal troops (because of "interference" with the US mail), who along with 2,000 state troops smashed the ARU.
   (6) Results
   (a) The public viewed the workers as ungrateful.
   (b) Debs, partially embittered because of the AF of L's refusal to support the Pullman strikers, became a leader of the American Socialist Party .
   i) While in jail for refusing to end the strike after a court injunction, he was visited by leading socialists, and read their literature.
   ii) 1897 - he joined the Socialist movement, formed in 1901 and led until his death in 1926 the Socialist Party, and ran 5 times for president under its banner.