GROWTH OF THE NATION 1800 - 40

I. Jefferson's Administrations (Third President)

A. Jefferson the Man

1. Played the violin beautifully
2. Composed his own epitaph - "Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, Author of the Declaration of Independence, of the statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom, a Father of the University of VA."
B. First Term -- Domestic Issues
1. Jefferson's Inauguration speech, 4 March 1801, the first held at Washington, stressed the need for a government of limited powers, economy in the national administration, support of state governments in all their rights, acquiescence in majority decisions, the preservation of civil liberties, and peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none .
2. Jefferson's Cabinet
   a. Secretary of State - James Madison (VA)
   b. Secretary of Treasury - Albert Gallatin .
3. Changes in the Federal System
   a. Alien and Sedition Acts were not renewed and those imprisoned by them were pardoned.
   b. Military Changes
   (1) The Army was demobilized.
   (2) Naval expansion was halted and cuts were made beyond those authorized by the previous Federalist congress, although the navy was not completely dismantled.
   (3) Because proper military training was deemed essential, the Military Academy at West Point (NY) was created (formally opening on 4 July 1802).
   c. Changes in the Financial Structure
   (1) Jefferson promised to reduce the national debt, believing that a large debt was undesirable, and took steps to cut spending , reducing it from $80 to $45 million by
   (a) reducing the diplomatic corps;
   (b) reducing the tribute paid to the Barbary pirates;
   (c) curtailing elaborate parties and government receptions.
   (2) Jefferson changed the sources of revenu e when he eliminated excise taxes, a move which made him popular in the west, relying on import duties instead.
   (a) Revenue was derived also from the sale of western lands which previously had been increased to $2 per acre;
   (b) The price per acre was reduced from $2 to $1.25 with the minimum lowered from 640 to 80 acres in easy-to-pay annual installments.
   (3) Jefferson altered the appropriations system
   (a) Federalists favored general appropriations for each department, granting lump sums which department heads spent at their own discretions.
   (b) Jefferson and Gallatin shifted to a more specific appropriations system -- each Department received a designated amount for pay, upkeep, provisions, etc., which gave more authority to Congress.
   d. Changes to a simpler tone of Government
   (1) Jefferson made the government more accessible by allowing anyone to attend public government party and function.
   (2) He had his invitations addressed as "Mr. Jefferson" rather than "Mr. President."
   (3) He walked to his own inauguration.
   (4) He sent messages to Congress, giving each House a written version, (breaking the precedent established by Washington and Adams who addressed Congress in person) , a practice followed until Woodrow Wilson in 1913.
4. Judicial Struggle
   a. Judiciary Act of 1801
   (1) The number of Supreme Court justices was reduced to five, and the number of lower courts was increased just prior to Jefferson's inauguration.
   (2) Although the action was justified, Adams exploited this for political purposes by making several midnight appointments (of Federalist judges and court officials)
   b. Marbury vs Madison February 1803
   (1) Jefferson ordered Madison to withhold from William Marbury the signed and sealed commission of his appointment by Adams as justice of the peace of the District of Colombia.
   (a) Marbury sued for a writ of mandamus to make Madison deliver his commission.
   (b) Jefferson and Madison argued that the Supreme Court did not have the authority to issue a writ of mandamus, even if Marbury were due his commission.
   (c) Marbury's suit was dismissed by Chief Justice Marshall, which avoided an open struggle with the executive branch responsible for the enforcement of the writ.
   (d) In doing so, Marshall for the first time established the principle by which the high court could hold an act of Congress unconstitutional.
   (e) Marshall ruled that Section 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789, which empowered the court to issue such a writ, was unconstitutional and invalid.
   (f) By doing so, Jefferson, not having to deliver the commission, did not challenge the court's authority to declare acts unconstitutional.
   (2) Judiciary Act of 1802 replaced the 1801 act by returning to six supreme court justices, and fixed a single annual term for the high court.
C. First Term -- Foreign Policy - Tripolitan War 1801-05
1. The practice of paying tribute to pirates along the North African Barbary states, established by the British, was continued by Washington and Adams, to protect American shipping in the area.
2. When the Pasha of Tripoli increased his demands for tribute and Jefferson refused, Tripoli declared war
3. Jefferson, although opposed to a navy, decided to resist and the US navy employed a vigorous blockade which brought the war to an end.
4. A favorable-treaty with Tripoli was signed in 1805, although the US paid tribute to other Barbary States until 1816.
D. Jefferson's Nationalism
1. Background
   a. Jefferson, a strict constructionist, did not believe that the federal government could take certain actions without such actions being specified in the Constitution.
   b. In reality, however, it was not easy to change a previous administration completely or to alter it radically, but each succeeding president must build on previous ones.
   c. Jefferson left the basic established Federalist' precedents in tact.
   d. In fact some actions caused his nationalism to overcome his states' rights views.
2. Louisiana Purchase 1803
   a. Background -- Treaty of San Ildefonso (October 1800)
   (1) In 1762, France had ceded Louisiana to Spain, but at Napoleon's insistence,the province was returned secretly to France after France promised not to sell the area to the US (Spain hoping to create a buffer state between its southern empire and the growing American colossus).
   (2) In an effort to keep the transfer a secret, Spain still administered the province, although the US soon learned of the transfer to France.
   (3) The US was concerned about the right of deposit in New Orleans, and the affect French control might have over the American usage of the Mississippi
   b. Negotiations for New Orleans
   (1) Robert R. Livingston , US Minister to France, was instructed by Jefferson to negotiate for a tract of land to use for a port or to obtain an irrevocable right of free navigation and the right of deposit in New Orleans.
   (2) James Monroe joined the negotiations (January 1803) with authority to offer $2 million for West Florida and New Orleans (as agreed by Congress) and if needed, as much as $10 million
   (3) A serious slave revolt in Haiti and the resumption of hostilities with Great Britain, for which France needed cash, led Napoleon to abandon his hopes of a renewed New World empire and offer to sell the US the entire province.
   (4) When the American envoys agreed to a price of $11,250,000 plus the settlement of $3,750,000 owed by France to US citizens for the entire province, they exceeded their instructions.
   c. Result
   (1) The purchase of Louisiana doubled the area of the US with a tract of 828,000 square miles (140% over the area of the 13 original states) between the Mississippi and Rocky Mountains, although exact boundaries were not defined between Spanish territory and Louisiana;
   (2) Because the Constitution made no provision for purchasing and assimilating foreign territory, this issue perplexed Jefferson, who in principle was a strict constructionist, but adopted a broad view here, while Federalists, normally more broad, took a strict interpretive view;
   (3) The Senate approved the treaty by a vote of 24-7 (20 October 1800);
   (4) C.C. Claiborne was named territorial governor;
   (5) Louisiana (1812) became the first state to come out of the Louisiana Purchase.
   d. Its exploration -- Lewis and Clark Expedition
   (1) Jefferson commissioned an expedition by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to cultivate friendly relations with the Indians and to search for a water route to the Pacific.
   (2) They left St. Louis on 14 May 1804 and returned in September 1806, proving the feasibility of an overland route to the Far West and stimulating Western settlement and commerce.
E. Northern Confederacy Scheme 1803-04 -- the Essex Junto
1. Many Federalists feared that states carved from the Western territories would eventually alter the political power balance in Congress, allowing Southwestern agrarian and frontier interests to rise over northeastern commercial and industrial interests.
2. Some anti-French Federalists, led by Senator Timothy Pickering (Mass) [called the Essex Junto ] considered establishing a Northern Confederacy of five New England states, NY and NJ.
3. The plan hinged on Burr's election as governor of New York, but Hamilton's opposition to the plan and to Burr's election resulted in his defeat for Governor in April.
4. As a result of remarks allegedly made by Hamilton against Burr (described as "a dangerous man, and one who ought not to be trusted with the reins of government"), Burr demanded an explanation from Hamilton which led to a duel in July 1804.
5. Burr-Hamilton Duel 11 July 1804 In Weehawken, NJ
   a. Although Hamilton did not believe in dueling, he believed that the government would collapse under the leadership of Jefferson and the nation would turn to a strong man to save it, as France had turned to Napoleon Bonaparte.
   b. Wanting to be the strong man, Hamilton, not wanting to appear cowardly, agreed to duel
   c. Although Hamilton deliberately missed, desiring honor not harm, Burr's aim was on the mark and Hamilton was mortally wounded, dying several hours later.
6. The Burr-Pickering alliance disintegrated completely when Burr fled.
F. Impeachment of Pickering and Chase 1804
1. Jefferson's struggle with the Federalist judiciary led to the impeachment and removal of Judge John Pickering, Federal district judge in New Hampshire, as unfit, and to the impeachment but acquittal of Judge Samuel Chase from Maryland.
2. This last attempt backfired and the Republicans stopped their campaign against Federalist judges, proving that unpopular judges cannot be removed for unsound reasons.
G. Election of 1804 -- first with separate ballots for President and Vice-President under Amendment 12
1. Candidates
   a. Republicans used for the first time a regular caucus of members of Congress.
   (1) Jefferson, popular after the Louisiana Purchase, was unanimously nominated for reelection
   (2) The tie between Burr and Jefferson had tainted Burr with Jefferson's supporters who then nominated George Clinton (NY) for vice-president.
   b. Federalists, still strong in New England and having lost their leading candidate, Hamilton, nominated Charles Cotesworth Pinckney for president.
2. Results
   a. Jefferson received 162 of 176 electoral votes, carrying all of New England except CN
   b. Vice President - George Clinton 162, Rufus King 14.
H. Jefferson's Second Term 1805-08 -- Domestic Issues
1. National Road (or Cumberland Highway ) Constructed 1811-18
   a. Because internal improvements were not authorized in the constitution, who should pay for them, public funds of the state or Federal government or private investment.
   b. Although Jefferson would have preferred a constitutional amendment to settle the issue, because this Congressional authority was not specified in the Constitution, he knew he would not get one and therefore supported such a project.
   c. Congress eventually authorized funding for a road beginning in western MD through southern PA to Wheeling (in Western) VA across the Appalachians, eventually extending through OH and IL.
   d. Additional Exploration -- LT Zebulon M. Pike explored for the sources of the Mississippi, and later explored Colorado and New Mexico, sighting a peak 15 November 1807 that bears his name.
2. Burr "Conspiracy" and Trial 1804-07
   a. His political career, having ended after his defeat for NY governor and the death of Hamilton, Burr approached Anthony Merry , British Minister to the US, seeking $500,000 and the loan of a navy to work to separate the Western states from the US.
   b. Although the British never did fund him, the Spanish gave him a small amount.
   c. Burr, conferring with Gen James Wilkinson , commander of US forces in the Mississippi Valley and Governor of LA, organized a military expedition in OH (60-80 men) before leaving for TN
   d. Wilkinson warned Jefferson who issued a proclamation advising citizens not to participate in an illegal expedition against Spanish territory.
   e. As the expedition moved down the Mississippi, Burr learned that Wilkinson had betrayed him and tried to flee to Spanish Florida before being arrested in Alabama.
   f. Although originally held for organizing an illegal expedition against Spanish territory, he was indicted for treason, but Chief Justice Marshall's definition of treason was so strict that Burr received an acquittal.
   g. Burr went into exile in Europe, supporting various schemes, to escape prosecution for murder in NY and NJ (where dueling was illegal) and for treason in OH, KY, MS and LA.
   h. He returned to New York and practiced law until his death in 1838.
3. African Slave Trade Ban (1808)
   a. The Constitution forbade interference with the slave trade for twenty years.
   b. Jefferson recommended that Congress stop the importation of slaves into the US.
   c. Congress forbade the bringing in of slaves into the US after 1 January 1808.
I. Second Term -- Foreign Policy -- Continued Problems with Britain and France
1. Problems with France
   a. Resumption of the Napoleonic Wars 1803
   (1) Napoleon emerged supreme on the Continent of Europe but not at sea.
   (2) Britain's overwhelming naval superiority made its interference with US commerce the more serious violation of neutral rights.
   (3) Both sides tried to restrict trade with the other by neutral nations.
   b. French Actions Against Neutral Nations
   (1) France's Berlin-Milan Decrees (1805) closed all European ports to trade with Britain.
   (2) French privateers began to seize all ships bound for England.
2. Problems with Britain
   a. British Counter Measures
   (1) Between 1804-05, Britain's West Indian policy was designed to destroy neutral commerce with French and Spanish colonies in America that furnished staples to Napoleon's army.
   (2) Britain countered French decrees with Orders in Council , blockading all trade with France or its allies, closing all ports not open to the British flag.
   (3) Britain began to seize any ships headed for French ports, forcing American ships into British ports, where both ships and cargo were sometimes seized.
   b. Neutral ships were not recognized by either side.
   (1) Britain insisted that all neutral ships must be checked first in British ports before proceeding to their destination.
   (2) France declared that if a neutral ship went into a British port, it would be assumed that it was now a British ship and would be treated as a prize of war.
3. Chief Problem -- British Attacks on US Shipping
   a. What angered the US was the British practice of IMPRESSMENT or the stopping of US ships, seizing some sailors on board, "impressing" them into service in the British navy, insisting that these were either deserters or still British citizens, refusing to recognize US naturalization
   (1) Between 1793-1811, the British seized an estimated 10,000 sailors from US ships, especially English-born US citizens.
   (2) The peak years were 1808-11 when 6,000 were pressed into service.
   b. But it should be noted that US merchant marines and navy encouraged British naval deserters to enlist, offering higher wages and much better treatment compared with the strict discipline on British naval ships and also aided British seamen in securing false naturalization papers.
   c. American Response
   (1) After Madison reported on the British infringement on neutral commerce rights, a Senate resolution condemned the British actions, but Britain ignored it.
   (2) As a result the Nonimportation Act of 1806 passed, which prohibited the importation from Britain of several items which could be produced in the US or imported from other countries but this only heightened hostilities with Britain.
   (3) All attempts to negotiate with the British over the issue of impressment failed
   (4) The terms of the Monroe-Pinckney Treaty (Dec 1806), made no mention of impressment, and embarrassed Jefferson that he did not submit it to the Senate
4. Heightened Hostilities at Sea
   a. HMS Leander Incident
   (1) HMS Leander had detained at least 12 US ships (1806), off the coast of NY.
   (2) An American sailer was killed accidental when a warning shot was fired by the Leander across the bow of one US vessel.
   (3) Jefferson banned the Leander and its companion ship HMS Cambrian from US ports.
   b. Chesapeake-Leopard Affair June 1807
   (1) Ten miles off the coast of Virginia, the US frigate Chesapeake was stopped by the British frigate Leopard .
   (2) The British claimed four men on the US ship were deserters, demanding their surrender
   (3) When US commander Commodore James Barron refused, a battle resulted which killed 3, wounded 18 and damaged the US ship before the deserters were forcibly removed
   (4) Incidents like these raised cries for war in the US, bringing both Federalists and Republicans together toward the issue of war
   (a) VA's governor called out the militia, keeping supplies from going to the British off coast
   (b) The British consul in New York had to have police protection;
   (c) A mob attacked and nearly destroyed a British vessel in NY harbor.
   (5) But the US was not prepared to fight, because of a weakened military, which forced Jefferson to seek a diplomatic solution.
   (6) Jefferson sent emissaries to negotiate with Britain for payment of damages to the US ship, but Britain delayed (not paying until 1811)
5. Embargo Act of 1807
   a. As a last ditch effort, Jefferson supported an embargo, which allowed no exports from the US to any country and restricted imports of certain British products.
   (1) It forbade all US ships from leaving for foreign ports, and did not allow many foreign vessels to leave US ports with US goods.
   (2) Although Federalists tried to block it, it passed the Senate 22-6, and in the House, supported by the South and West, by 82-44.
   (3) This action made Jefferson very unpopular, especially in Federalist strongholds and along the Atlantic coast.
   (a) Means for evading its provisions were developed.
   (b) A brisk smuggling trade developed on land and water, particularly between New England and New York, and Canada.
   (c) The British cooperated with US merchants who violated the law.
   (4) Its results did not bring Britain to its knees, because England was not as dependent on US goods as was thought.
   (a) It hurt English wage earners, Caribbean planters and slaves, not upper classes.
   (b) These lower classes, being non-voters, had little clout in Parliament.
   b. French Response
   (1) France responded with the Bayonne Decree (April 1808) which ordered the seizure of all US vessels entering French, Italian or Hanseatic ports, assuming the embargo was in force.
   (2) France confiscated $10 million worth of US goods and shipping.
   c. Opposition Triumphs
   (1) Republicans in the East divided with other Republicans, allowing Federalists to gain control of New England legislatures in the elections of 1808.
   (2) Giles Enforcement Act (January 1809) attempted to close up the look holes in the embargo, providing fierce penalties for violating the embargo.
   (3) Several state legislatures challenged its constitutionality
   (a) Massachusetts characterized it as "unjust and arbitrary."
   (b) Connecticut's Governor asserted that Congress had exceeded its powers and state governments should protect the "rights and liberties" of the people.
   (c) Timothy Pickering called for a New England convention to nullify the embargo.
   (4) The Supreme Court ruled in US vs Peters (February 1809) that the national government had power over state authorities, and a district court in Massachusetts upheld the embargo as constitutional, but it was never taken to the Supreme Court.
   (5) Opposition in Congress grew among two groups.
   (a) Federalists who claimed that it was a pro-French and anti-British action.
   (b) Quids , dissident Republicans led by John Randolph (Virginia)
   (6) Congress repealed the embargo with the Non-Intercourse Act (March 1809)
   (a) It permitted trade with any nation except for France or Britain, and authorized the president to resume trade with either if ceased violating US neutrality rights.
   (b) Jefferson signed it into law on 1 March 1809.
J. Election of 1808
1. Candidates
   a. Republican-Democrats after Jefferson followed Washington's precedent of no third term
   a. James Madison 's nomination by party caucus left some candidates miffed.
   Eastern Republicans, disenchanted with the embargo, nominated Vice-president Geo Clinton (NY).
   b. Southern "Old Republicans" nominated James Monroe, but he withdrew.
   b. Federalists sensed a potential increase in strength because of dissatisfaction over the embargo and nominated Charles C. Pinckney (SC) and Rufus King (NY).
2. Results
   a. Madison won comfortably with 122 electoral votes to Clinton's 6 while Pinckney received 47 (an increase over 14 in 1804, but not enough).
   b. Clinton was elected Vice President over Rufus King 122-47.
   c. Federalists gained seats in the House, but not a majority.
   

II. Madison's Administrations (4th President)

A. Madison the Man

1. The "Father of the Constitution" was the most height-challenged (shortest) president at 5'4".
2. His very-popular wife, Dolly, decorated the White House and held the first inaugural ball.
B. First Term -- Domestic Issues
1. Annexation of West Florida October 1810
   a. Although not mentioned, the US assumed that Louisiana included West Florida to the Perdido river
   b. When Southern expansionists revolted over Spain's dominion of West Florida, Madison announced that the US possessed the territory and authorized its military occupation by US troops.
   c. In January 1811, Congress secretly resolved to occupy East Florida in the event that local authority consented or a foreign power attempted to take it over.
   d. In May 1812, Congress included West Florida in Mississippi Territory.
   e. After the War of 1812 began, Gen Wilkerson occupied the Spanish fort at Mobile, the only possession that the US retained after the War of 1812 was over.
2. Yazoo Land Fraud
   a. Georgia's legislature (1794), after much bribery involving nearly every member of the legislature, two US Senators, and many state and federal judges (including one Supreme Court justice), sold 35 million acres (present Mississippi and Alabama) to four land companies for 1.5 cents per acre.
   b. Corrupted legislators were defeated at the polls and the legislature voided the Yazoo grant (1796).
   c. Georgia ceded its western lands to the US Congress (1802) which tried to settle with the claimants of the earlier land deal.
   d. Congressional "Quids" blocked the settlement (1804-05), delaying it until 1814
   e. Fletcher vs Peck March 1810
   (1) Several purchasers had sold off millions of acres, however, and.buyer, Robert Fletcher , sued his seller, John Peck , for breach of warranty of title.
   (2) Using the "Contracts Clause" of the Constitution, the Supreme Court (4-1, 2 abstentions) ruled on the only question, that of title -- Could legislatures deprive bona fide investors of the lands they had acquired under the corrupt grant?.
   (a) Buyers were innocent of the wrong doing of others;
   (b) All titles would be insecure, and the intercourse between man and man would be very seriously obstructed, if this principle be overturned;
   (c) The original grant was a valid contract, thereby voiding the later rescission of the action, what Fletcher was really hoping for.
   (d) Political corruption could be remedied through the polls, not the courts.
   (3) This benchmark in the protection of property and contracts from legislative interference contin-ued to indicate Marshall's preference for national powers over state powers.
   (4) The decision provoked a public outcry, especially from states' rights advocates.
3. Debate over the National Bank - January - February 1811
   a. The charter's renewal, due to expire on 4 March, was endorsed by Treasurer Gallatin.
   b. Opponents to Renewal
   (1) "Old Republicans" viewed the bank as the last vestige of Federalist power, declared it an unconstitutional act, and sought to remove Gallatin from office;
   (2) Anglo-phobes pointed to the fact that because 2/3 of the stock was owned by Britons, the bank's renewal would actually aid an enemy;
   (3) Those favoring state-chartered banks
   c. The bill to renew it was pushed in the Senate by William Henry Crawford (GA) but the Senate's 17 - 17 tie resulted in Vice-President Clinton's tie-breaking no vote.
   d. The bank concluded its business and expired.
4. Northwest Indian Problems
   a. Many in the West suspected that the British were arming and stirring up anti-American activity in the Old Northwest territory.
   (1) Britain had removed all remaining troops after Jay's Treaty went into effect.
   (2) Britain kept friendly relations with the Indians to keep them detached from the US, but did not foster revolts against the US although British fur traders and Canada's governor aided them.
   b. A Shawnee known as the "Prophet" and his brother, Tecumseh , united several Indian tribes west of the Appalachians against white settlers.
   c. Settlers in the Ohio Valley thought that war with Britain would end their economic depression and damage or end the British-Indian alliance.
   d. General William Henry Harrison , governor of Indiana Territory, with 1000 men defeated an Indian dawn surprise attack at the Battle of Tippecanoe on 7 November 1811, burning the Indian headquarters before returning to Fort Harrison
   e. This temporarily slowed the Indian revolt, many of whom went to Canada, where British authorities tried to cut off aid to the Indians.
   f. It was thought that if the Indian's Canadian base were destroyed, the Indian menace would be removed, thus Westerners pushed for aggressive action against Canada, perceived as weakened and defenseless, and open to easy attack.
C. First Term -- Foreign Policy - Continued Problems with France and Britain
1. Background
   a. Madison inherited the deteriorating situation with Britain as well as the growing discontent among US citizens over the embargo and over the issue of war.
   b. When the British Minister to the US, David M. Erskine , assured Secretary of State Robert Smith , that the Orders in Council of 1807 would be revoked in June 1809, Madison proclaimed legalized trade with Great Britain.
   c. But when British Foreign Secretary George Canning stated that Erskine had exceeded his authority and ordered him back to Britain in May 1809, Madison, appearing foolish, revived the Non-Inter-course Act against Britain in August 1809.
2. Macon's Bill NO. 2 (May 1810)
   a. When the Non-Intercourse Act was about to expire, Congress, after much Federalist opposition, authorized the President to resume trade with France and Britain, but added that if, before March 1811, either nation modified or revoked its edicts which violated US neutrality rights, the President could prohibit trade with the other nation.
   b. If after 3 months, the other power failed to withdraw its edicts, non-intercourse would be revived against it.
3. Napoleon's Deception
   a. The French regarded it as favorable to Britain because of its naval superiority.
   b. Upon learning of Macon's Bill No. 2, Napoleon instructed his Foreign Minister, Duc de Cadore , to notify the US minister to France, John Armstrong, that the Berlin and Milan Decrees would be revoked after 1 November, if the US withdrew its Non-Inter-course act against France.
   c. On the same day, however, Napoleon signed the Decree of Trianon which sequestered all US vessels that called upon French ports between May 1809-10.
   d. The ambiguously-worded letter made it appear that the decrees had already been revoked
   (1) Madison accepted the communication at face value and issued a proclamation in November that reopened trade with France and halted trade with Britain in three months (February 1811).
   (2) Napoleon's duplicity was not discovered until the new US minister to France, Joel Barlow, arrived in September 1811 and sought clarification about the Berlin and Milan Decrees.
   (3) The Decree of St. Cloud , allegedly signed by Napoleon, voided the decrees against the US, but had not been published or sent to the US.
   (4) By the time the US realized what had happened, Napoleon was involved in his Russian campaign and the US was at war with Britain.
   e. Britain immediately renewed its blockade of New York and increased its practice of impressing US citizens into service on British naval vessels.
D. War of 1812
1. Causes of the War of 1812 can be traced back to Jefferson's administration
   a. British Impressment practices as noted above.
   (1) Maritime and commercial issues were the most important cause.
   (2) Madison was not a tool of expansionists (see below) but he supported their agenda
   b. Anti-British Feelings in the West
   (1) Western settlers faced three problems in the early 1800s:
   (a) Economic depression caused by a poor transportation system which was now interrupted by the British seizure of American ships.
   (b) Indian attacks , esp. in the Ohio Valley, which settlers were convinced were caused by British inciting the Indians against Americans.
   (c) American fur traders clashed with British fur traders in the Ohio Valley in an area now regarded as US territory (although Jay's Treaty allowed this)
   (2) In the elections of 1812, many new Western and Southern congressmen, like Henry Clay , John C. Calhoun and Andrew Jackson , from agrarian frontier areas, were pro-expansionist, anti-British, and pushed for war with Britain.
   (3) These congressional war hawks (so-called by John Randolph), although a minority in Congress, became more vocal in their pursuit of war with Britain.
   (4) Although not really affected by the maritime issues, as the Atlantic seacoast, they viewed British maritime seizure and impressment as an outrage against national honor, equated US security with land hunger and combined their desire for Canada with southerners desire for Florida from Spain, Britain's ally.
   c. Some scholars also have suggested that the War of 1812 was a second American war of Independence .
   (1) Some in the US, perhaps even Madison himself, were fearful that Britain was taking the US too leniently and did not perceive them as a serious nation.
   (2) While certainly not the major consideration, the War of 1812 did end all hostilities between Britain and the US, after which both nations grew closer together diplomatically.
2. Declaration of War
   a. Congressional war hawks, 40 newly elected representatives from the west and south elected to the 12th Congress, led by Henry Clay, Speaker of the House, pushed Madison to call for a declaration of war against Britain, because only a vigorous demonstration in behalf of American rights would show the vitality of the new republican experiment.
   b. Congress authorized the President to call up state militias for 6 months service (April 1812).
   c. Pro-British maritime and commercial interests in the East forced a close vote.
   (1) On 18 June, the House voted for war 79-49 and the Senate voted 19-13.
   (2) PA and VA represented thirty of the pro-war vote.
   (3) NY and MA represented twenty of the anti-war vote.
   (4) SC, GA, OH, KY and TN unanimously voted for war.
   (5) DE, RI and CN unanimously opposed it.
   d. On 19 June a state of war was declared by Madison.
   e. Four major causes were listed -- (1) impressment; (2) violation of US neutrality rights and territorial waters; (3) blockade of US ports; and (4) refusal to revoke Orders in Council
   f. Ironically one cause, Orders in Council, was removed two days before war was declared
   (1) On 11 May 1812, the British Prime Minister, Spencer Perceval was assassinated, which threw the British government into turmoil temporarily
   (2) The new British Prime Minister, former Foreign Secretary Lord Castlereagh, suspended the Orders in Council, but too late to notify the US before its declaration
3. Opposition to the War
   a. Opponents to the war were mainly from New England and mid-Atlantic states (the area north and east of the Hudson River almost entirely sat out the war).
   (1) In New England the charge of British impressment was viewed as exaggerated.
   (2) New England merchants, in spite of the embargoes and importation bans, were profiting through Canada and the British West Indies.
   (3) Pro-British Federalists viewed the pro-French Republican stance as the major problem.
   (4) To many, Napoleon was a "Corsican butcher," the "anti-Christ of the age."
   (5) The addition of Canada was opposed because the creation of new states would further diminish the power of the older states.
   b. Because this was the area of strength of the Federalist party, opposition to the war was connected in the popular mind with the Federalists.
4. US Preparedness
   a. Although the war between Britain and France had been going on since 1793, the US was inadequately prepared for war in 1812.
   b. US Advantages
   (1) Great Britain had tied up many resources in the European war against France.
   Proximity to the theater of war
   (2) Superior numbers to British citizens in Canada, the chief US target.
   (3) Well trained and efficient, although greatly outnumbered, Navy.
   (a) The US navy consisted of 16 regular vessels, of which only seven were seaworthy, and 100 almost worthless gunboats.
   (b) Britain had over 200 ships and frigates, many of which had twice the firepower of the US navy combined.
   c. US Disadvantages
   (1) A small, badly administered regular Army , which was composed of volunteers and raw militia with few experienced and capable officers, and who were poorly equipped and supplied.
   (a) Republicans, who did not like a standing army, had reduced it to 6,700 men and officers, scattered throughout the states.
   (b) In preparation for the war, Congress (January 1812) had authorized an increase in the army to 35,000 men but this lagged.
   (2) No united support , as this war was opposed especially in New England
   (a) Federalists called it Mr. Madison's War seeing him as a French tool.
   (b) New England's resistance to the war deprived Madison of some of the best-trained state troops in the US.
   i) MA' House of Representatives urged its citizens not to volunteer except for defensive purposes and CN's General Assembly condemned the war.
   ii) Both governors refused to let their militias leave their borders.
   iii) In NH, veiled hints of disunion were made.
   (3) The charter for the national bank had expired, leaving the US with no centra -lized financial machinery through which to coordinate its finances.
5. Conduct of the War - Phase One
   a. Plan of a three-pronged attack on Canada
   (1) East, led by Gen Henry Dearborn , along the Lake Champlain route, to assault Montreal.
   (2) Center, led by Gen Stephen Van Rensselaer , along the Niagara River frontier, to attack Canadians.
   (3) West, led by Gen William Hull , from Detroit against Upper Canada.
   b. Unfortunately, US troops were composed mainly of ill-trained militia and the campaign against Canada was a failure.
   (1) Hull's surrender of Detroit (August 1812) left Britain in control of Lake Erie and Michigan country, allied with the Northwest Indians, led by Tecumseh.
   (a) Hull was court-martialed for cowardice and neglect of duty (1814), missing death only because of his Revolutionary War record;
   (b) His name was dropped from the army roll.
   (2) The Niagara campaign failed when New York's State militia did not reinforce the American force of 600, who were crushed by the Canadians
   (a) Van Rensselaer resigned his commission, replaced by Alexander Smythe
   (b) Smythe was indecisive, relieved of command and dropped from the roll
   (3) Dearborn with the largest US force under arms arrived at the Canadian frontier, but US troops refused to proceed further, forcing Dearborn to return to Plattsburg (November).
   (4) These disasters revealed the need for well-trained regular troops.
   c. Naval Successes
   (1) CPT Isaac Hull of the USS Constitution won a much-needed victory over the British frigate Guerriere.
   (2) CPT Stephen Decatur of the USS United States defeated the British frigate Macedonian off the Madeira Islands;
   (3) CPT William Bainbridge , new commander of the Constitution , defeated the British frigate Java , a battle which earned the ship the name Old Ironsides .
   d. Fruitless Peace feelers
   (1) Madison instructed Jonathan Russell, US minister to Great Britain, to negotiate a settlement, if the British would abandon impressment and agree to pay damages for any spoiled ships.
   (2) Russell also indicated that the US would stop naturalizing British citizens.
   (3) Lord Castlereagh rejected both proposals, and Britain made a counter offer to an armistice and negotiations but Madison indicated the US would accept only if Britain suspended impressment
6. Conduct of the War - Phase Two
   a. British Blockade, beginning December 1812
   (1) The blockade of Chesapeake and Delaware bays shut off commerce and was marked by British raids along the shores of the upper Chesapeake.
   (2) Its extension to the mouth of the Mississippi to New York harbor (November 1813), did not include New England yet, hoping to encourage disunion.
   (3) When the Northeast failed to remove itself from the union, Britain extended the blockade to include New England (1814).
   (4) The British blockade was highly effective in spite of a US blockade of England.
   (a) The US dispatched cruisers to prey upon British merchant convoys in the Atlantic and South Pacific and resorted to privateering, but these efforts did little to offset British naval superiority.
   (b) US privateering only became effective in 1814 with a US naval blockade of the British coast made it unsafe for vessels to travel to Ireland unescorted
   (c) By the summer of 1814, the US had captured 825 vessels, but this did not lessen the tight British blockade of the US coast.
   b. Harrison in the West
   (1) Citizens commissioned William Henry Harrison after the fall of Detroit and Ft. Dearborn and appointed him to head an expedition to Detroit.
   (2) Madison and the Secretary of War concurred making him commander of the northwestern army
   (3) Harrison was ordered to retake Detroit, but Harrison could not move against it while the British controlled Lake Erie.
   c. Naval Defeats
   (1) The USS Chesapeake , under James Lawrence , was captured by the British frigate Shannon .
   (2) Lawrence's last words, Don't Give Up the Ship , became the navy's rallying cry
   d. Battle of Lake Erie - the most important naval engagement on the Great Lakes and one of the bloodiest engagements of the war.
   (1) CPT Oliver Hazard Perry , commander of the USS Lawrence , inscribed the last words of Lawrence on his flag.
   (2) Perry with ten vessels engaged the British for 3 hours on 10 Sept 1813 before the British surrendered, although 80% of the flagship's crew were casualties.
   (3) Perry's message to Gen. Harrison: We have met the enemy and they are ours.
   e. Battle of the Thames
   (1) With the US in control of Lake Erie, the threat to Canada was again real, and the British abandoned Detroit and fell back to a line along the Niagara frontier.
   (2) Harrison with a main force of 4,500 pursued the retreating British at defeated them at the north bank of the Thames River, helped especially by the Kentucky mounted regiment under COL Richard Mentor Johnson .
   (3) Tecumseh having been killed, the Indian confederacy collapsed and the Indians deserted Britain
   f. Drive on Upper Canada
   (1) Dearborn's combined military and naval action against York, capital of Upper Canada, led to its surrender, although the US suffered 320 casualties including Gen Zebulon Pike when a magazine exploded.
   (2) US troops against orders burned York's public buildings, giving the pretext for the British burning the public buildings in Washington DC.
   (3) When Dearborn became ill, Gen Winfield Scott took immediate command.
   (4) Battle of Sackett's Harbor (May 1813) -- Gen Jacob J. Brown repulsed a landing force led by Canada's governor.
   g. Second Attempt Against Montreal
   (1) James Wilkinson assumed Dearborn's command and Gen Wade Hampton headed the force at Lake Champlain.
   (2) A second attack on Montreal was planned by way of the St. Lawrence, but the mutual dislike of these two generals for each other made cooperation difficult.
   (3) Wilkinson was hampered by a British force about 90 miles from Montreal while Hampton, on the Canadian line, in an untenable position, fell back to Plattsburg
   (4) Several cities in New York, including Buffalo, were harassed by the British and by Indians, suffering damage, because Ft Niagara remained in British hands.
7. Conduct of the War - Phase Three
   a. War Embargo -- New England and New York contractors supplying beef, flour and other provisions to the British armies in Canada and to enemy vessels off the East coast, led Madison to recommend an embargo to stop this trade with the enemy, which, although it became law (December 1813), was unsuccessful and later repealed.
   b. Creek War
   (1) Tecumseh had tried to enlist the Alabama Creeks in 1811 in his Indian Confederacy.
   (2) After the War began, a Creek war faction, the "Red Sticks," about 2,000 warriors from the Upper Creek country, began a general uprising along the frontier.
   (3) A clash between settlers and Indians (July 1813), 80 miles north of Pensacola, led to the Creek War, beginning on the east bank of the Alabama river, 35 miles north of Mobile, in August.
   (4) Andrew Jackson , major general of the Tennessee militia, called out 2,000 volunteers, and these forces fought the major engagements against the Creeks.
   (a) A major effort in early 1814 penetrated the heart of Upper Creek country.
   (b) Battle of Horseshoe Bend resulted in the deaths of almost 900 warriors and capture of 500 women and children with less than 200 US casualties, ending the campaign.
   (5) Two Treaties
   (a) Treaty of Ft. Jackson - signed by part of the Creeks, who ceded 2/3 of their lands to the US and agreed to withdraw from southwestern Alabama
   (b) Treaty of Greenville - in the Northwest, restored peace with the US and required the Miami, Seneca, Shawnee and the Wyandot Indians to declare war on the British.
   (6) Jackson was promoted to major general of the regular army.
   c. US troop strength - The authorized regular army strength was 58,254 with an enlistment of only 11,000, but it was increased to 62,773 (actual enlistment of 34,000 by October).
   d. British Offensive -- April 1814
   (1) Napoleon's defeat allowed the British to concentrate resources in North America
   (a) In the summer, 14,000 British troops from the Duke of Wellington's Peninsular campaign arrived in North America.
   (b) The British plan was aimed at Lake Champlain, Chesapeake Bay and New Orleans with an increased enforcement of the blockade.
   (2) Northern Campaign -- American offensive toward Canada
   (a) MG Jacob Brown and BG Winfield Scott were responsible for the Niagara sector.
   (b) Before the British reinforced, the Americans offensively invaded Canada
   (c) Battle of Chippewa - July - US forces severely defeated the British in the only battle of the war in which almost equal numbers of troops, neither enjoying an advantage, engaged in close combat in extended order.
   (d) US naval forces's failure to cooperate on Lake Ontario forced US troops to retreat from the Canadian side of the Niagara frontier.
   (e) Battle of Lundy's Lane - July - the most sharply contested land action of the war pitted 2,600 US forces under Brown against 3,000 British troops in a 5-hour battle which ended in a draw, although the American withdrawal left the British in possession of the field.
   (f) Siege of Fort Erie - August - Retreating US forces fell back on Ft. Erie before the British force of 3,500 laid an unsuccessful siege to the fort, forcing a British withdrawal, but the US later abandoned Ft. Erie and destroyed it, ending their drive on Canada.
   (g) Lake Champlain and Plattsburg - Britain's offensive pitted 11,000 men against 3,300 US regulars and militia (4,000 having gone to Buffalo).
   (h) Battle of Lake Champlain - US control of Lake Champlain under CPT Thomas Macdonough turned the tide in favor of the Americans in a battle lasting almost 2 1/2 hours
   i) This US victory destroyed the British fleet except for its gunboats
   ii) The US had undisputed control of Lake Champlain, forcing a British retreat to Canada.
   (3) March on Washington - August
   (a) Supporting a Canadian campaign, 4,000 British troops created a diversion on the US coast
   (b) Britain's 3 aims: to seize or destroy the flotilla of gunboats under shelter in the Patuxent, to descend on Baltimore and to raid Alexandria and Washington D.C.
   (c) As the British approached, gunboats in the Patuxent were abandoned and destroyed by US forces in retreat.
   (d) Battle of Bladensburg - An incompetent Gen William H. Winder US commander of the Potomac District, with a mixed force of 7,000 was routed by 3000 British forces and forced to withdraw to Georgetown.
   (e) Capture and Burning of Washington - US government officials and a panic-stricken army fled as British forces marched unopposed into Washington DC and set fire to all public buildings except the Patent Office, inflicting over $1.5 million in damage before a storm forced their retreat.
   (4) Attack on Baltimore September
   (a) While the British were destroying Washington DC, citizens in Baltimore established an elaborate defense works.
   (b) British land forces bogged down while bombarding Ft. McHenry unsuccessfully, inspiring an US captive Francis Scott Key to pen the verses to The Star Spangled Banner , sung to the tune of a British bar song.
   (c) Britain abandoned the taking of Baltimore, sailing to Jamaica in October.
8. End of the War
   a. Peace Proposals
   (1) Czar Alexander I of Russia offered to mediate Anglo-US differences, because of Napoleon's declaration of war against Russia, an ally of Britain.
   (2) Castlereagh refused mediation, but, having tired of the war, offered Monroe direct mediation
   (3) Madison accepted the offer, appointed John Quincy Adams , J A Bayard , Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell as peace commissioners (later Treasurer Albert Gallatin).
   b. Treaty of Ghent
   (1) Ghent was chosen as the meeting place and discussions began in August 1814.
   (2) US envoys were instructed to obtain satisfaction on impressment and other British maritime infractions against the US.
   (3) Concerning territory the US desired status quo ante bellum (pre-war conditions)
   (4) British envoys desired a neutral Indian buffer state in the Northwest and territorial concessions between Maine and Lake Superior (about 1/3 of US territory) and insisted, especially after the burning of the US National Capital, on uti possidetis , (retention of territory actually held).
   (5) After news of Macdonough's victory on Lake Champlain, the Americans rejected British terms
   (a) The Duke of Wellington told his government that the setbacks on the Great Lakes area did not entitle Britain to demand cessation of any territory
   (b) Because Britain had a depleted treasury and was diplomatically embar-rassed at the Congress of Vienna, they conceded to the US territorial view.
   (6) The terms of the treaty restored the peace but did not address the issues over which Great Britain and the United States fought.
   (a) It provided for a release of prisoners, restoration of all conquered territory (British, not Spanish) and a commission to settle the disputed US-Canadian northeastern boundary.
   (b) It left to the future the questions of disarmament on the Great Lakes and the use of the fisheries off Newfoundland.
   (7) The treaty was unanimously ratified by the Senate in February 1815.
9. Results of the War
   a. US casualties included 1,877 dead and 4,000 wounded.
   b. The US was in greater debt, although none of the issues were settled.
   c. The national capital was in shambles
   d. Federalists, opposing the war, were seen as treasonous, ceasing to be viable nationally.
E. Aftermath of the War
1. Battle of New Orleans
   a. Although it was fought two weeks after the signing at Ghent and did not affect the outcome of the war or treaty terms, it powerfully restored national pride and made Andrew Jackson a national hero
   b. Jackson became commander of Military District No.7 (May 1814) which included the New Orleans-Mobile area and the US army in the southwest
   (1) Against Monroe's orders, he invaded Spanish Florida and seized Pensacola.
   (2) He then traveled through Mobile and arrived in New Orleans on 1 December.
   c. It should be noted that England sent troops to New Orleans, even while negotiations at Ghent were being held, which suggested that they might have ignored the terms of Ghent if they had won.
   d. 7,500 veteran British soldiers under Sir Edward Packenham left Jamaica and sailed through the Gulf of Mexico in order to assault New Orleans, although took one week to disembark;
   e. Jackson with a main defense at Baton Rouge learned that the British landed 40 miles east of New Orleans, after which he hurried his forces to New Orleans to oppose British forces massing there;
   f. Martial law was proclaimed in New Orleans, although the British marched to within seven miles of the city without being detected.
   g. Jackson led 5,000 in a night attack against the British and stopped their advance
   h. He quickly constructed defense works and the Americans outgunned the British on 1 January 1815 in a furious artillery battle.
   i. Jackson with 4,500 regulars, many from Tennessee and Kentucky, held off two direct assaults by the British, who suffered heavy casualties (8 January).
   j. The one-hour battle resulted in Packenham's and two other British officer's deaths and 2,036 British casualties against only 21 US casualties.
   k. The British withdrew on 27 January
2. Hartford Convention (15 Dec 1814 - 5 Jan 1815)
   a. Opposition to the war remained strong in New England even after its declaration
   (1) Money lenders in there probably loaned more gold to Britain than to the US.
   (2) Their farmers sent large quantities of goods through Canada to Britain.
   (3) Many governors kept their state militias within state boundaries.
   b. 26 delegates (MA, CN, RI, NH, VT) met in secret to consider several proposals including constitutional amendments to strengthen the older states.
   (1) Apportionment of direct taxes;
   (2) Limit representation according to free population only;
   (3) Protect against military conscription not authorized by the Constitution;
   (4) Use federal revenue collected in New England only for defense;
   (5) Desired interstate defense machinery, independent from federal provisions, to repel enemy invasion;
   (6) An embargo could not last more than sixty days;
   (7) Require a two-thirds vote in both houses before declaring war;
   (8) Restriction foreign commerce and the admission of new states;
   (9) Prohibit naturalized citizens from holding civil Federal office
   (10) Limiting the President to a single term.
   c. Extremists wanted to discuss if discontented states should secede from the union, but moderates like Harrison Gray Otis and George Cabot (MA) who presided, prevailed.
   d. A 3-man delegation, headed by Otis, went to Washington to suggest these amendments and proposals but news of the victory at New Orleans and the signing of the Treaty of Ghent overshadowed them so that the measures were not ever considered
   e. The Hartford Convention became the brunt of popular votes.
3. Burst of Patriotism
   a. News of the victory at New Orleans touched off a great national celebration
   (1) Numerous American symbols became important
   (a) The American flag was proudly displayed at times;
   (b) American type songs, like the Star Spangled Banner;
   (c) The Bald Eagle became a popular national symbol;
   (d) The use of "Uncle Sam " became popular.
   (e) Fourth of July celebrations became prominent
   (2) American artists painted landscapes which included American birds, flora and fauna, rather than the traditional use of European birds, flora and fauna.
   (3) American writers used American themes
   (a) Carson Weaver 's popular biography of George Washington became a national best seller (although it contained many fictional anecdotes).
   (b) Benjamin Stillman started the Journal of American Science , on US natural resources.
   (c) Noah Webster's Dictionary noted differences in American English.
F. Domestic Issues After the War of 1812
1. Peacetime Military Establishment
   a. Madison's recommended peacetime army of 20,000 was only authorized at 10,000.
   b. The navy's gunboat flotilla was sold and the armed vessels on the Great Lakes was stripped of all equipment and laid up.
   c. A three-man Board of Navy Commissioners was authorized to carry out general supervision of the Department of the Navy under the Secretary of the Navy.
2. Second National Bank of America 1816
   a. In October 1814, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander J. Dallas recommended a new bank capitalized at $50 million
   b. When Congress only permitted a $30 million capitalization and did not agree to allow the president to suspend specie payment or to lend 60% of the money to the government, Madison vetoed it.
   c. Madison's annual address in 1815 suggested a need to reconsider the issue and Republicans reversed themselves, having previously objected on constitutional grounds and revived the issue.
   d. Congressional debate
   (1) John C. Calhoun introduced a measure (similar to Dallas' recommendations) and believed it was necessary to restore a sound and uniform circulating medium of exchange, pointing to the power of the Congress to regulate the currency;
   (2) Henry Clay , who in 1811 believed that such a measure was unconstitutional, now agreed that the change in circumstances made the bank indispensable;
   (3) Daniel Webster opposed it because no currency reform was needed because of the constitutional provisions for gold and silver currency.
   e. The bill passed 80-71 in the House and 22-12 in the Senate
   (1) It was capitalized at $35 million of which the government could borrow 20%.
   (2) The bank was to pay a bonus to the government of $1,500,000.
   (3) The President appointed 5 of the 25 directors of the bank.
   (4) The Bank became a depository for government funds without paying interest.
   (5) The central office was in Philadelphia and began operating on 1 Jan 1817.
   (6) The first manager, William Jones, was inept and Congress threatened to repeal the charter in 1819 before reorganization made Langdon Cleaves President.
   (7) Nicholas Biddle became president (1822) until the bank expired in 1836.
3. Bonus Bill Veto March 1817
   a. Although Madison supported a federally funded network of roads and canals, he wanted an amendment to make it constitutional.
   b. Calhoun introduced a bill to set aside the bank bonus and future dividends from Bank stock held by the government into a permanent fund to be used for internal improvements, drawing upon the constitution's "general welfare" clause and from the power to establish post roads, which demonstrates how much the Republicans had accepted the Hamiltonian doctrine of implied powers
   c. Opponents to the bill used sectional rather than constitutional grounds
   (1) In New England, 34 votes against it reflected fear of Westward expansion;
   (2) In the South, 23 were for it, and 25 were against it;
   (3) In the West only 6 opposed the measure (42 for it).
   d. Madison vetoed the bill on constitutional grounds as his last presidential act.
G. Other Foreign Policy Issues
1. Decatur's Algerine Expedition March-June 1815
   a. During the War of 1812, the Dey of Algiers renewed his plunder of US Mediterranean commerce.
   b. He declared war on the US, seized US vessels and enslaved US nationals on the pretext that the US was not paying sufficient tribute.
   c. The US Congress authorized action against the Dey, and CPT Stephen Decatur sailed from New York with 10 vessels, captured several Algerian vessels and sailed into the Algerian port.
   d. The Dey was forced to sign a treaty whereby he renounced molestation of US commerce and tribute, and agreed to release all US prisoners without ransom.
   e. Tunis in July and Tripoli in August also agreed to compensate the US for any US vessels which they had allowed Great Britain to seize as prizes of war.
   f. Decatur's actions brought to a close the trouble with the Barbary States.
2. A commercial convention with Britain was held in July 1815.
H. Election of 1816
1. Candidates
   a. Republican party caucus selected James Monroe over William H. Crawford 65 - 54, continuing the "Virginia Dynasty," and Daniel D. Tompkins (NY) was nominated for Vice-President.
   b. Nationally Monroe was opposed by Rufus King , Federalist
2. Results
   a. The discrediting of the Federalist party gave Monroe a 183-34 electoral votes four abstentions.
   b. Monroe carried all states except for Mass, Conn and Delaware.
3. Monroe's Inaugural address revealed the extent to which Republicans had embraced Federalist positions, including a standing army, adequate navy and government protection of manufacturing.
   

III. Era of Good Feelings Period of National Unity

A. Introduction

1. Presidential Tour (May - September 1817)
   a. President Monroe toured the eastern seaboard north of Baltimore and as far west as Detroit, a symbol of the triumph of national feeling over party animosity.
   b. Americans, especially in New England, warmly received the President so that the Boston Colombian Centinel referred to the times as the era of good feelings .
   c. The designation is superficial and misleading because the seeds of sectionalism were sown during this administration.
   d. Although no formal political parties existed, new party factions arose during this period and new controversies were created as magnified in the circumstances surrounding the election of 1824.
2. Nation as a Whole
   a. At the beginning, the US had 18 states with twice the population of 1790.
   b. The West was populated rapidly, although transportation and communication remained a problem.
   c. John Jacob Astor established the American Fur Company , chartered in NY.
   (1) With forts and trading posts along the Missouri River to the mouth of the Colombia, he built a fur trading empire and became very wealthy.
   (2) He established Astoria on the mouth of the Colombia, although the British kept the post after the War of 1812.
3. Rise of Manufacturing
   a. Groups like the Boston Manufacturing Company , Lowell Associates and Walthom Associates shifted investment from trading to manufacturing in cotton textiles.
   b. Several important trends developed
   (1) The shifting of capital to the northeast
   (2) The concentration of industry in a single area
   (3) New machines, looms and spindles, used water power, being less dependent on humans
   (4) A new source of labor resulted when the supply of New England farm girls diminished and they were replaced by the daughters of Irish immigrants, keeping the cost of labor low.
   (5) A new kind of organization emerged, the corporation which permitted limited liability and allowed smaller amounts of investment.
   c. Later industries such as boot making and shoes followed the lead of cotton textiles.
4. Beginnings of Sectionalism
   a. North
   (1) The financial center of the US shifted to New York City.
   (2) Dependable communication with the Continent developed from New York
   (a) The Black Ball Line traveled regularly across the Atlantic to England and returned every other Friday.
   (b) The first ship was named the James Monroe .
   (3) The Erie Canal linked Buffalo NY on Lake Erie to Albany NY on the Hudson
   b. West
   (1) Indian problems were waning, especially after the death of Tecumseh.
   (2) Liberal land laws enabled many farmers to eventually gain land and to produce a surplus of goods, which led to a shift to market-oriented agriculture.
   (3) A demand for better roads, canals and railroads was created.
   (4) Surplus produce was sold to the South as well.
   c. South
   (1) A one-crop economy, especially after Eli-Whitney's cotton gin made slavery "profitable."
   (a) Southern cotton, a short fiber with burrlike green seeds, required much hand labor and time to remove, making its production expensive;
   (b) In 1793 a yankee visiting a Georgia plantation, Eli Whitney , invented a machine that could do the work of fifty hands who cleaned cotton.
   (2) Everyone grew cotton which became king, leading to the need to import food from the West.
   (a) From 2 million pounds of cotton grown (1793) to 80 million pounds (1811)
   (b) On the eve of the Civil War, 5 million 400-pound bales made the South the world's major supplier of raw cotton.
   (3) This led to the purchase of additional slaves, the expansion of plantations in the South to reap greater profits and the need for new virgin soils to the West after over-extended soil burned out, because of poor agricultural methods.
   (4) Most capital for developing Southern cotton was provided by NY financiers, with major profits flowing to NY and the West making the South dependent on both regions.
   (5) These conditions led to overspeculation in slaves and land by Southerners, to an unstable financial structure dependent on the world market price of the single-moneyed crop of cotton, and to the creation of no diversified industry.
5. Rise of Abolitionism
   Those who demanded an end to slavery created stress in the South, who increasingly feared a loss of power in the Senate.
   When Western and Northern legislators combined for such things as a tariff, southern resentment created a demand that the Federal Union be reevaluated in order to consider its dissolution.
B. First Term of James Monroe (5th president)
1. Domestic Issues
   a. Jackson and the First Seminole War
   (1) A fort in Spanish-held East Florida, built by the English during the War of 1812, had become a refuge for runaway slaves and hostile Indians.
   (2) Because of the threat to the Georgia border, the US government sent an expedition which destroyed the fort in July 1816.
   (3) Command of the forces along the Georgia and Florida border was transferred to Andrew Jackson (December 1817), with orders to pursue hostile elements, usually Negroes and Indians, across the border as far as the Spanish posts.
   (4) Jackson wrote Monroe in the Rhea Letter that if given the word that Florida was desirable to the US, he could accomplish the task in sixty days.
   (5) When nothing was said from Washington about the letter, Jackson interpreted this as approval and proceeded to seize several Spanish posts.
   (6) During the campaign, Jackson captured, court-martialed and executed 2 British traders, Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert Ambrister , for aiding the enemy.
   (a) Although British public opinion was incensed, Britain took no action.
   (b) A debate in the US Congress, however, led by anti-Jackson forces, especially Henry Clay in the House, produced unfavorable reports against Jackson but no proceedings were made against him.
   (c) In the southwest, however, popular approval of Jackson's Seminole campaign, which brought all of East Florida under US military control, kept Monroe from taking action against Jackson.
   (d) Jackson's raid strengthened Monroe's hand diplomatically, because while Jackson moved militarily against Spanish Florida, Secretary of State John Adams was negotiating with Spain's Foreign Minister Luis de Onis over the Louisiana Purchase's western boundary.
   (e) After accusing Spain of aiding and abetting hostilities against the US, and asserting that the US acted in self-defense, the US minister in Madrid issued an ultimatum -- Either protect and control Florida or cede it to the US
   b. Panic of 1819
   (1) Commodity inflation, wild speculation in western lands, overextended investments in manufacturing, mismanagement of the Second Bank of the US, collapse of foreign markets and contraction of credit, led to the first real American economic depression.
   (2) The Congressional order in 1817 to resume specie payments strained the resources of state banks, caused many failures and created hardships for debtors, especially in the southwest.
   (3) To end wild land speculation, Congress canceled the easy credit terms of the land law of 1800, but kept the price at $1.25 per acre for a minimum of 80 acres.
   (a) "Squatters" often settled on and improved government land, not yet for sale.
   (b) Their champion was Sen Thomas Hart Benton (MO)
   (4) Widespread resentment against the National bank was created in the West, where it was referred to as "The Monster" by Benton from Missouri.
   c. Dartmouth College vs Woodward February 1819
   (1) In 1816 the Republican dominated New Hampshire legislature altered the royal charter (1769) of Dartmouth College, switching the administration to a state appointed board of trustees.
   (2) The old board of trustees sued the secretary of the university asserting that the legislative act was unconstitutional, in violation of the obligation of contracts.
   (3) After the state court upheld the legislature, the Supreme Court under Marshall held that the charter constituted a contract, ruling the legislative act unconstitutional.
   (4) The decision placed charters of existing private corporations outside the jurisdiction of states that chartered them, encouraged business growth, but led to abuses of corporate privileges.
   d. McCullough vs Maryland Marshall's most detailed exposition of the constitution
   (1) The legislature of Maryland passed a law aimed at the Second Bank of the US.
   (2) All banks not chartered by the state were required to comply with restrictions concerning note issues or pay an annual tax of $15,000.
   (3) When the Baltimore branch ignored the law, claiming it was unconstitutional, the state sued the cashier of the bank, James W. McCullough.
   (4) Two issues were at stake:
   (a) Was the act of Congress establishing the national bank constitutional?
   (b) Was the state tax on the bank constitutional.
   (5) The Marshall court unanimously ruled (March 1819) that the powers of the national government were derived from the people and are exercised directly on them, effectively stating the doctrine of "loose construction"
   (a) Although the federal government is limited in its powers it is supreme in its sphere of action
   (b) The government must have the suitable and effective means to execute the powers it has.
   (6) It also denied that states could tax the bank, because the power to tax is the power to destroy .
   e. Missouri Compromise March 1820
   (1) Both Missouri and Maine applied for statehood by the end of 1819 when the US had eleven slave (VA, MD, DE, KY, TN, NC, SC, GA, AL, MISS, LA) and eleven free (MASS, CO, RI, VT, NH, NY, NJ, PA, OH, IN, IL) states.
   (2) While the slave-holding South had 81 votes in the House to the North's 105, a political balance was maintained in the Senate between 1802-19 by admitting alternately a free and a slave state.
   (3) The population in the north was growing at a faster pace than in the South and the South realized its political future lay in the Senate.
   (4) Talmadge Amendment
   (a) Rep. James Talmadge 's (NY) bill prohibited further introducing slaves into the Upper Louisiana territory and freed at age 25 all children born of slaves in MO after statehood.
   (b) The amendment passed in the House but not in the Senate.
   (5) Taylor Amendment January 1819
   (a) When the organization of Arkansas Territory came before congress, Rep John W. Taylor (NY) moved that slavery not be allowed in the territory.
   (b) The amendment was defeated before Arkansas territory was created with its northern boundary at 36 30' with no restrictions on slavery.
   (6) The debate over Missouri
   (a) Sen Rufus King (NY) stated that Congress was empowered to forbid slavery in Missouri and should do so as a condition to admittance.
   (b) Sen William Pinckney (MD) replied that since the union was composed of equal states, Congress could not restrict Missouri's freedom of action.
   (7) Thomas Amendment
   (a) In February 1820 at the same time that Maine petitioned to become a state, Alabama was admitted as the 22d state.
   (b) Senator Jesse B. Thomas (IL) introduced a compromise measure to permit Missouri as a slave state, and Maine as a free state but to prohibit slavery in the Louisiana Purchase (excluding Missouri) above the 36 30 line
   (8) The Senate agreed to admit Maine as a free state if Missouri were admitted as a slave state, but the House passed a measure similar to the Taylor amendment.
   (a) In the deadlock that resulted, a congressional conference removed the Taylor amendment, inserted the Thomas amendment and the House passed this compromise measure 90-87.
   (b) The decisive vote was made final by the defection of Northern legislators whom John Randolph described as doughfaces .
   (9) Maine was effectively admitted as the 23d state in March and Missouri was admitted in August, when Congress approved its state constitution which permitted slavery but after it struck out a provision which excluded free Negroes and mulattos
   f. African Slave Trade
   (1) A law in March 1819 paid a bounty for information on illegal importation of Negro slaves into the US or seized at sea.
   (2) The president was empowered to return all such slaves to Africa.
   (3) In 1820 the foreign slave trade was declared piracy which could result in for-feiture of vessels and death penalty for all US citizens engaged in importing slaves.
2. Foreign Policy Issues
   a. Rush-Bagot Agreement April 1817
   (1) Acting Secretary of State Richard Rush and British Foreign Minister Charles Bagot agreed mutually to disarm the Great Lakes, an area threatened by a post-war arms race.
   (2) Each limited their naval forces on inland waters to one vessel per Lake Champlain and Lake Ontario and two vessels on the Upper Lakes, none to exceed 100 tons or to have more than one 18-pound gun.
   (3) After the Senate's unanimous approval, giving it treaty force, it became the longest disarmed border in the world, after extending to common land borders
   b. Convention of 1818
   (1) The northern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase between the US and British North America was not clear and was fixed along the 49th parallel from the Lake of the Woods to the crest of the Rocky Mountains.
   (2) The Oregon Territory was left open to citizens of both nations for ten years.
   (3) The commercial treaty of 1815 was renewed with US nationals gaining fishing rights off the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland
   c. Adams-Onis Treaty February 1819
   (1) The US ultimatum regarding Florida plus Spanish colonial difficulties in South America pushed Spain to agreed to US demands.
   (a) Spain renounced all claims to West Florida, ceded East Florida to the US
   (b) The US renounced its claims to Texas and assumed the claims of US citizens against Spain up to a maximum of $5 million.
   (2) The western boundary of the Louisiana Purchase also was clearly defined -- from the mouth of the Sabine River on the Gulf of Mexico, proceeding northwest-erly along the Red and Arkansas Rivers and then due west along a straight line at the 42d parallel, Spain thus surrendering claims to the Pacific Northwest to the US.
   (3) The US Senate ratified it on February 1821 after many Spanish delays.
C. Election of 1820
1. Poor attendance at the Republican Congressional caucus blurred the old party distinctions and resulted in no nominations, leaving his candidacy unopposed
2. Results
   a. With three abstentions, Monroe received 231 out of 235 electoral votes.
   b. One dissenting elector from New Hampshire voted for John Quincy Adams.
   c. Daniel D. Tompkins was reelected Vice President with 218 votes.
3. Inauguration -- Monroe set a precedent by postponing the inaugural exercises until 5 March because the 4th fell on a Sunday.
D. Monroe's Second Term
1. Domestic Issues
   a. Cumberland Road Bill Veto May 1822
   (1) Construction of the National Road or Turnpike stopped with the panic of 1819.
   (2) Congress voted to repair roads, establish toll gates and collect tolls.
   (3) Although supporting a national system of internal improvements, he vetoed it because Congress lacked jurisdiction without a proper constitutional amendment.
   b. Henry Clay's American System
   (1) To win support for a protective tariff in 1824, Clay defined an American system
   (2) It combined the protective tariff with a national system of internal improvements to expand the domestic market and lessen US dependence on overseas sources
   c. Tariff of 1824 May
   (1) It increased protection on iron, lead, glass, hemp and cotton bagging, raised the 25% minimum on cotton on woolens to 33 1/3% and advanced the rate for raw wool by 15%.
   (2) New England commercial interests + Southerners joined in opposition.
   d. Gibbons vs Ogden 1824 -- unanimous decision
   (1) It again illustrated the Marshall court's siding with the national government over states' rights.
   (2) It involved Congress's power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce.
   (3) Background
   (a) In 1807, Robert Fulton successfully invented a practical steam-propelled craft which operated up the Hudson at the speed proscribed by NY law, and obtained a monopoly of steam navigation on the state's waters.
   (b) Many challenged the monopoly which led to litigation.
   (c) One challenge involved Aaron Ogden who had a state-required Fulton-Livingston license and Thomas Gibbons who had a federal coasting license and ran a competing boat line between New Jersey and Manhattan.
   (d) New York courts upheld the state monopoly given to Fulton-Livingston.
   (4) Webster, speaking for Gibbons, interpreted commerce broadly and argued that the states had concurrent power over commerce between the states.
   (5) Marshall, speaking for the court, defined commerce expansively, beyond mere exchange of goods, to include persons and steamboats.
   (6) Concurring Justice William Johnson, a nationalist (SC), added that the power to regulate interstate commerce was the exclusive right of the national government -- Congress is supreme in all aspects of interstate commerce over state powers which could not limit Congress .
2. Foreign Policy
   a. Latin American Republics
   (1) The success of the independence movements in Spanish America after 1817 led Henry Clay to advocate that the US recognize the new Republics.
   (2) Because of negotiations with Spain over the western boundary of the Louisiana purchase and the cessation of Florida to the US, the US hesitated until 1821, when a congressional resolution expressed sympathy with Latin American republics and a willingness to support the President when he should decide to recognize them
   (3) In a special message to Congress, after the Florida treaty was finalized, Monroe proposed formal recognition of the Latin American republics
   (a) Colombia was recognized on 19 June 1822
   (b) Mexico was recognized on 12 December.
   (c) Chile and Argentina were recognized on 27 Jan 1823
   (d) Brazil was recognized on 26 May 1824.
   (e) Federation of Central American States was recognized on 4 August 1824
   (f) Peru was recognized on 2 May 1826.
   b. Treaty of 1824
   (1) The Czar of Russia extended Russian claims along the Pacific coast to north of the 51st parallel in Oregon territory, and closed surrounding waters including the Bering Strait, to other powers
   (2) Secretary of State Adams challenged these claims, informing Russia's minister that the US contested their right to any territorial establishment on this continent
   (3) Under a treaty between the US and Russia, signed on 17 April 1824, Russia agreed to come no further than 54 40 ' and withdrew the maritime restrictions in exchange for the US renuncia-tion of all territory north of this line.
   c. Monroe Doctrine December 1823
   (1) Although Great Britain was not sympathetic to the republican governments in Spain's former new world provinces, it did not want a revival of or extension of Spanish or French power in the New World, hoping to keep open to British commerce the rich markets of Latin America.
   (2) Quadruple Alliance (France/Austria/Russia/Prussia) agreed at the Congress of Verona (November 1822) to act to restore the Spanish authority of King Ferdinand VII, who in 1820 had been forced to accept a constitutional monarchy.
   (a) France was authorized to invade Spain, but no action was taken on its request to intervene in South America.
   (b) In protest, Britain broke with the other European powers on this issue.
   (3) England moved to come to an understanding with the United States over the issue, having had difficulties before over Cuba.
   (a) Britain proposed joint Anglo-American action against the intervention by the Holy Alliance in the New World.
   (b) US minister to Britain referred the offer to Monroe who consulted with Jefferson and Madison, both supporters of close cooperation with Britain
   (4) Secretary of State Adams believed the US should act alone to assert its strength and independence in order to create an American system in the Western Hemisphere
   (a) He also believed that Britain could not be trusted to be disinterested
   Britain desired a US renunciation of plans to take Cuba in exchange for their cooperation.
   (b) French were not a threat in South America because Britain controlled the Atlantic Seas, seeing Russian designs in the Pacific as a greater threat.
   (5) Polignac Agreement
   (a) Britain secured from France a renunciation of all intentions to conquer or annex the Spanish-American colonies.
   (b) The desire for a joint Anglo-American conference waned.
   (6) Monroe announced the US policy in his annual address to Congress (1823), (essentially John Q. Adams' ideas on foreign affairs in the western hemisphere).
   (7) The Monroe Doctrine's parts:
   (a) non-colonization : The American continent should no longer be seen as subjects of future colonization by European powers;
   (b) non-intervention : Because the political system in the Americas was essentially different from the Europeans, theUS would consider dangerous to its peace and security any attempt by a European power to extend their political system to any point in the Western hemisphere;
   (c) The US would not interfere with existing colonies or dependencies of European powers in the New World, with the internal affairs of European nations, nor take part in European wars of solely foreign interest.
   (8) At the time of its announcement, the world's powers took little note of it, but it served as the classic definition of US role in international affairs, although its major significance emerged only after the middle of the 19th century.
E. End of National Political Unity
1. Intrigues within the Cabinet Between 1820-22,
   a. Political factionalism linked to Presidential ambitions caused dissensions in the Cabinet.
   (1) Secretary of War John C. Calhoun 's supporters announced his candidacy (December 1821)
   (2) Calhoun was attacked by supporters of Treasurer William H. Crawford .
   b. The Senate, dominated by Crawford's followers, called for retrenchment of War Department expenditures and would not approve nominations of military officers recommended by Calhoun.
   c. Monroe tried to remain neutral, but the fact that he was leaving office lessened his influence.
   d. One supporter of Calhoun, Senator Ninian Edwards (IL) wrote a series of articles in 1823 in the Washington Republican , a backer of Calhoun.
   (1) The articles accused Crawford of malfeasance of office.
   (2) Edwards eventually preferred charges against Crawford, but he was exonerated by a House committee in May 1824.
2. Election of 1824
   a. Because of the factionalism, opposition to the Congressional caucus as the means of choosing a candidate rose, and the nominations were mostly left to state legislatures.
   b. Candidates
   (1) The Tennessee legislature nominated Andrew Jackson , and was endorsed by a state nominating convention in Pennsylvania.
   (2) The Kentucky legislature nominated Henry Clay .
   John Quincy Adams was nominated at a meeting in Boston.
   (3) The congressional caucus, the last one to nominate a Presidential candidate, met and nominated William H. Crawford .
   c. Campaign
   (1) Crawford was virtually eliminated by a paralytic stroke (September 1823).
   (2) John C. Calhoun , who had allowed his candidacy to be announced in 1821, withdrew to run for Vice-President on the Adams and Jackson tickets.
   (3) Dissension among Southern and Western candidates strengthened Adams' position
   (4) Adams' support of the "American System" brought him close to Clay, who had strong differences with Jackson.
   (5) Jackson attacked "King Caucus ," supporting the right of the people to choose their own President, and received the most popular votes.
   d. Results
   (1) Jackson did not receive the required majority of electoral votes.
   (a) Jackson received 99 electoral votes, Adams received 84, Crawford 41, Clay 37.
   (b) Calhoun received 182 electoral votes and was elected vice-President.
   (2) The election was settled in the House of Representatives between the three highest vote getters, thus eliminating Clay who then backed Adams.
   (3) The state legislature of Kentucky was instructed to vote for Jackson, but Clay convinced them to vote for Adams instead.
   (4) In February 1825, Adams received 13 votes, to Jackson's 7 and Crawford's 4.
   (5) The election of Adams ended the Virginia Dynasty .
   e. Corrupt Bargain
   (1) Rep George Kremer (PA) charged Clay (in an unsigned letter) with making a "corrupt bargain" before the House vote,
   (2) When Adams offered Clay the position of Secretary of State, the charge was given credence, a charge repeated by Jackson in 1827.
   (3) No conclusive evidence supports the charge, but it plagued Clay the rest of his political career.
   (4) Over the winter of 1824-25, the Republican party divided into two factions:
   (a) The Adams-Clay wing became known as National Republicans .
   (b) The Jackson faction emerged as Democratic Republicans .
   
   

IV. John Quincy Adams' Administration (6th President)

A. Domestic Issues

1. Civil Service Policy
   a. Adams did not employ the usual practice of rotating Federal appointive offices (patronage) usually aimed at political opponents, which cost him an essential means of building a political party.
   b. He renominated any officeholder that did not warrant removal for official misconduct or incompetence, which resulted in no more than twelve removals.
   c. Unfortunately, many incumbents in the Jackson-Calhoun faction worked against Adams.
2. Growing Opposition
   a. Adams outlined his program in his first annual address to Congress (December)
   (1) Having a broad nationalist view of Constitutional powers, he recommended the construction of roads and canals, a national university and an astronomical observatory, standardization of weights and measures and the exploration of the US interior and the Pacific Northwest coast.
   (2) He desired laws that promoted agriculture, commerce and manufacturing and encouraged the arts, sciences and literature.
   b. His proposals antagonized Southern adherents of states' rights and caused his opposition in Congress to crystallize.
   c. VP Calhoun, using newly granted powers to appoint Senate committees, filled half the positions with persons who did not support Adams' programs.
   d. Factionalism in the South, however, plus Northern and Western supporters of the American system, gave Adams the edge in Congress.
   e. The first issue of the United States Telegraph , edited by Duff Greene , a Calhoun supporter, became the voice of opposition to Adams' administration.
3. Deaths of Adams and Jefferson 4 July 1826.
   a. Thomas Jefferson died at his Monticello home hours before John Adams.
   b. John Adams in Quincy Massachusetts allegedly said before death Jefferson still lives.
4. Revival of the Tariff Issue
   a. Introduction
   (1) Tariff of 1824 did not stop British competition with wool-growing and woolen textile interests
   (2) Northeastern interests introduced a bill in 1827 to substantially raise import duties to make the importation of those articles virtually prohibitive.
   (3) Although the Bill passed the House, VP Calhoun cast the decisive vote in the Senate, agreeing with anti-tariff forces
   b. Harrisburg Convention -- 100 delegates from 13 states (July - August 1827) called for higher duties generally, a minimum-valuation principle on textiles and additional duties on hemp, flax, hammered bar iron and steel and other goods.
   c. Southern Opposition
   (1) The South, dependent on the world market for the disposal of its agricultural commodities, opposed a protective tariff because it caused an increase in manufactured goods.
   (2) Thomas Cooper in a speech in Columbia SC, condemned the economic ambitions of the North as a menace to Southern equality in the Union and suggested that the South would reevaluate its role in the Federal Union -- facing either submission or separation .
   d. Tariff of Abominations May 1828
   (1) The dominant Jacksonian faction in the 20th Congress exploited the tariff issue to discredit Adams, expecting New England vote to back Adams and Southerners to agree with Jackson;
   (2) The Jacksonians submitted a tariff (31 January 1828) with such high duties that no section was expected to vote for it;
   (3) Adams would get blamed for the defeat of the measure and protectionists in the Pennsylvania steel industry would be alienated from Adams;
   (4) A Middle state-Southern alliance voted down every attempt to amend the tariff, expecting it to be defeated;
   (5) The measure passed the House, however, 105-94 and the Senate, 25-21, raising the tariff to its highest level before the Civil War.
   Because it embodied the principle of protective tariffs, New England's legislators voted for it despite its deficiencies, to the Jacksonian's surprise;
   Western and Middle State Jacksonians voted for the measure as well to deprive the Clay-Adams faction of a campaign issue.
   e. South Carolina Resolves -- SC's legislature passed 8 resolutions, calling the tariff unconstitutional, oppressive and unjust and were joined by protests from MS, GA and VA.
   f. South Carolina Exposition and Protest
   (1) With the resolutions was a lengthy essay written but not signed by John C. Calhoun, espousing the theory of state sovereignty and minority rights.
   (2) Calhoun formally abandoned nationalism, maintaining that states possessed the right to determine if acts of Congress were constitutional or not, states' rights doctrine .
   (3) With it, Calhoun identified himself with the particularist views of his state and section.
B. Broadening of Democracy
1. Changes in Voting Patterns
   a. Many states (NJ in 1807; MD in 1810) began removing property-holding and taxpaying qualifications for voting, even before the War of 1812.
   b. This trend continued with the admission of new western states after 1815, like IN (1816), IL (1818), AL (1819) and Maine (1820), whose constitutions permitted white manhood suffrage.
   c. Many older states liberalized their constitutions between 1816 and 1830, like CN (1818), Mass by amendments (1821) and NY (1821) which removed property qualifications.
   d. Religious qualifications for voting and officeholding also were removed by amendment.
2. Other trends
   a. A trend toward counting population rather than taxpayers began.
   b. An increase in popularly elected offices occurred.
   c. The selection of presidential electors was gradually transferred from state legislatures to the people.
   d. By 1828, only SC and DE still chose electors through state legislatures.
C. Foreign Policy Issues -- Panama Debate
1. Simon Bolivar had called for the convening of a congress of Latin American republics, and in 1825, Colombia and Mexico extended an invitation to the US.
2. The purpose of the Congress was to unite Latin American republics against any possible recovery actions of Spain, but Adams believed that the dominant position of the US in the hemisphere demanded US participation in this conference.
3. Adams' opponents in Congress attacked the plan
   a. As a congress it would have the status of a government, a violation of American tradition of national independence and neutrality, if the US participated.
   b. Adams had accepted the invitation to the Congress without consulting Congress.
   c. Southerners were especially alarmed because some republics controlled by Negroes would be at the Panama Congress.
4. Adams sent two nominations for delegates to the Panama Congress, while stressing the limited and consultative nature of American participation, but these nominations were rejected.
5. Senator John Branch (NC) submitted a resolution affirming the authority of the Senate to pass on the appointments of ambassadors or other public ministers.
6. Although the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations reported unfavorably on the proposal in January 1826, the full Senate approved the mission 24-19 in March and the House appropriated funds for it, although the US was never represented at it.
D. Election of 1828
1. Candidates
   a. Democrat-Republicans
   (1) Andrew Jackson , nominated by Tennessee's legislature (October 1825), resigned his Senate seat to run for president.
   (2) VP John C. Calhoun was placed on the ticket with Jackson.
   b. National Republicans in Harrisburg PA nominated John Quincy Adams for a second term and added Richard Rush (PA) for Vice president.
2. Campaign
   a. Democrats attacked on personal grounds and their opponents retaliated in kind.
   b. The "corrupt bargain" charge was used effectively against Adams and Clay.
   c. Jackson was hailed as a frontier military hero, champion of the common man and supporter of the "American system."
3. Results
   a. Jackson 647,231 popular (178 electoral) votes to Adams 509,097 popular (83 electoral) votes
   b. Calhoun was reelected Vice-president with 171 electoral votes.
   c. The crucial states of Pennsylvania and New York both went for Jackson.
   d. In New York, Jackson received 140,763 votes to Adams 135,413, with the support of Martin Van Buren and William L. Marcy , NY leaders who had gained control over the old Republican machine and maintained power by exercising the "spoils system."
E. Retirement of John Quincy Adams
1. Adams had served as Ambassador, Senator, Secretary of State and one-term as US President.
2. Following his defeat for reelection, in 1831 Adams returned for 17 years to the House of Representatives from Massachusetts, earning the nickname Old Man Eloquent .
3. He fiercely opposed the expansion of slavery, seeking to limit its movement into newer states.
4. In 1848, he suffered a stroke in Congress and died a few hours later.
5. His ghost is said to roam the House chambers still.
   

V. Andrew Jackson's (7th President) Administration

A. Domestic Issues -- First Term

1. Inauguration
   a. Jackson pledged himself to economy in government, a proper regard for states' rights, a "just and liberal" Indian policy and a revamping of Federal civil service.
   b. He did not refer to the tariff, internal improvements, currency or Bank of the US.
   c. Western frontiersmen mingled with Washington society at the inaugural ball, signaling the arrival of the common people at political power.
2. Kitchen Cabinet
   a. After taking office Jackson suspended the practice of holding cabinet meetings, relying on a small group of unofficial political confidants for advice on policy.
   b. These "lower cabinet" meetings known as the "Kitchen Cabinet," included Amos Kendall , Isaac Hill , William B. Lewis , Andrew J. Donelson and Duff Green .
   c. After the Cabinet was reorganized in 1831, Jackson relied on it for counsel.
3. Spoils System
   a. In an 1831 Congressional debate, Senator William Learned Marcy (NY) stated To the victor belongs the spoils.
   b. Patronage for party purposes was first used by Jefferson, although sparingly
   c. By 1829 the system was solidly entrenched in several states, esp. NY and PA
   d. When Jackson introduced it into national politics on a scale hitherto unmatched, he did not make wholesale removals for political reasons, replacing no more than 9% incumbents in his first year or more than 20% of the office holders in his two terms
4. Maysfield Road Veto May 1830
   a. In his annual message, Jackson addressed the constitutional objections over internal improvements and recommended the distribution of the surplus revenue among the states according to their Congressional apportionment, allowing the states to use the funds at their own discretion.
   b. When Congress authorized a government subscription of stock ($150,000) in the Maysville, Washington, Paris and Lexington Turnpike Road Company, to construct 60 miles, Jackson vetoed it on strict constructionist and expediency grounds.
   (1) Because the road lay within a single state, Kentucky, and had no connection to an established system of improvements, the government had no jurisdiction.
   (2) A constitutional amendment would sanction Federally-subsidized roads and canals, if desired.
   c. By vetoing the measure, Jackson made concessions to the South without abandoning his general support for internal improvements.
5. Bank Veto July 1832
   a. Under the conservative management of Nicholas Biddle , the Bank of the US had prospered and expanded, aided business, stabilized currency and curbed inflation.
   b. But his policy of branch drafts compelled state and local banks to contract their note issues, making the bank unpopular among debtors especially in the South and West
   (1) Southern states' rights groups questioned the bank's constitutionality.
   (2) State banks sought government deposits.
   (3) Van Buren and his NY supporters disputed Philadelphia's financial leadership.
   (4) Biddle's domination of conservative Bank policies made him a personal target for anyone resenting monopolies, corporations and a moneyed aristocracy.
   c. Jackson revealed an intent to eliminate the national Bank.
   (1) Jackson favored a government-owned institution with severely limited operations confined mainly to deposit.
   (2) He questioned its constitutionality, asserting that it had not established a sound and uniform currency.
   d. Bank Issue Forced
   (1) After Benton attacked the Bank, Clay advised Biddle to apply immediately for renewal of its, forcing the issue on Jackson before the presidential elections;
   (2) Although the recharter bill passed the Senate (June 1832) and House (July), Jackson vetoed it as an indictment against monopoly and special privilege, making the Bank the major issue in the presidential campaign of 1832 .
   (3) Jackson maintained that each branch of government was independent of the others and bound to support the Constitution as each understands it and not as others understand it.
   (4) The Senate failed to override his veto on 13 July.
B.Jackson's Indian Policy
1. In 1830 Congress made provision for the removal of Indians.
2. Under a series of treaties beginning in 1791, Cherokees in Georgia were recognized as a separate nation with their own laws and customs.
   a. White settlement on their lands in GA and on neighboring Creek lands and encroachment on Choctaw and Chickasaw lands in MS and AL created tensions.
   b. When gold was discovered on Cherokee lands, the Georgia legislature in 1830 voided the previous laws, from which the Cherokees sought relief from the courts.
   c. Cherokee Nation vs Georgia - the court ruled that it lacked jurisdiction because the Cherokees were "a domestic dependent nation," not a foreign state.
   d. Worcester vs Georgia - the court ruled that the national government had exclusive jurisdiction over Cherokee territory, a decision defied by Georgia.
   e. Jackson supported Georgia stating John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it ., making states' righters think he supported them so SC moved against the Tariff of Abominations
3. Jackson pursued a broad policy of extinguishing Indian land titles in states and removing them as the solution for those who would not be "civilized" for their protection, and also to allow land development.
   a. During his terms, 94 Indian treaties were concluded.
   b. A special Indian territory was created in Arkansas country (1834).
   c. In the Old Southwest, the Creeks, Choctaw and Chickasaw signed treaties of evacuation, leaving only the Cherokees by 1833 in retention of their lands.
   d. Cherokees surrendered to the US all their lands east of the Mississippi for $5 million, transportation costs and land in Indian territory (1835).
4. A Bureau of Indian Affairs was established (1836).
5. Indian Armed Resistance
   a. Seeking to recover lost lands in Wisconsin and Illinois, the Sac and Fox Indians fought the Black Hawk War in mid-1832 along the Upper Mississippi, put down by forces led in part by Abraham Lincoln (his only military experience).
   b. In Florida, a Second Seminole War (November 1835 - August 1843) was led by Osceola .
C. Nullification Crisis 1832
1. Jackson agreed with the Tariff of 1828 ("of Abominations") and protectionism but to conciliate the South, he recommended tariff revision.
2. Tariff of 1832, while somewhat milder, retained the principle of protectionism but was used by South Carolina nullifiers to win a decisive victory in state elections
   a. Southerners opposed Western land development as much as New England manufacturers, because rich new lands attracted wealth from the washed out soils, but neither section sought solutions to their lack of growth, only defended their power.
   b. The South blamed the tariff also for their declining wealth, not overproduction.
3. Ordinance of Nullification
   a. During 1830-31, nullification forces gained strength in South Carolina, although Unionist sentiment could not be overcome.
   b. Calhoun's Fort Hill Address (July 1831) contained the principle of a concurrent majority
   c. His letters to the governor affirmed that nullification was constitutional, conservative and a legitimate means of redressing acts deemed harmful to the state.
   (1) His theory was based on false assumptions about the Constitution, although Calhoun thought he was following the arguments laid out in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of 1798-9.
   (2) Sovereignty lay in the people of the states, not the people in the Union.
   d. Gov. James Hamilton Jr called for a special session of the SC legislature which authorized a convention, which met in Columbia in November
   e. The convention adopted an ordinance by a vote of 136-26, nullifying the tariffs of 1828 and 1832.
   f. The ordinance
   (1) prohibited the collection of duties within the state effective 1 February 1833;
   required a test oath for all state officeholders except legislators;
   (2) forbade appeal to the Supreme Court of any case in law or equity arising from the ordinance
   (3) asserted that the use of Federal force was grounds for secession.
   g. The state legislature appropriated funds for a state military force.
4. Jackson's response
   a. The Secretary of War was ordered to alert the forts in Charleston Harbor and MG Winfield Scott was given command of army forces in South Carolina.
   b. Jackson's December message to Congress recommended a reduction of the tariff.
   c. Jackson issued his Proclamation to the People of South Carolina , among his most important state papers.
   (1) Nullification was an impractical absurdity .
   (2) The sovereign and indivisible Federal government was supreme.
   (3) No state could refuse to obey the laws of the land or could leave the Union.
   (4) Disunion by armed force is treason.
5. South Carolina's Response
   a. When Robert Y. Hayne was elected governor, John C. Calhoun was elected Senator in his place and therefore resigned the vice-presidency, the first to do so
   b. A counter proclamation called for a general convention of states to consider relations between the Federal and state governments, but many states condemned nullification and secession.
6. Force Bill January 1833
   a. Jackson asked Congress for authority to enforce militarily the revenue laws, if needed.
   b. While Calhoun debated Webster on nationalism and states' rights, Henry Clay forged a compromise tariff, which passed both houses in 1833.
7. Crisis Ends -- late January 1833
   a. When learning that a compromise tariff was being sought, SC suspended its nullification ordinance
   b. A state convention in March adopted a face-saving ordinance which declared the Force Bill null and void, allowing both sides to claim victory.
D. Struggles with Anti-Jackson Critics
1. Washington Globe
   a. To counter the rise of anti-Jackson publications, like Duff Green's United States Telegraph , Jackson and his "Kitchen Cabinet" established an administration paper.
   b. Francis P. Blair Sr. edited the paper which began in December 1830.
2. Webster-Hayne Debate January 1830
   a. Attempts to temporarily restrict western public land sales, led by Sen Sam A. Foot (CO), were challenged by Western Senators esp. Thomas Hart Benson (MO) and Robert Y Hayne (SC)
   b. Advocating strict constructionism and states' rights views over Federal interference, Hayne stated the very life of our system is the independence of the States, and that there is no evil more to be deprecated than the consolidation of this government.
   c. Sen Daniel Webster (Mass) answered Hayne and their exchange eventually was confined to the origin and nature of the Constitution and the Union.
   (1) Hayne supported state sovereignty and nullification.
   (2) Webster, denying the validity of constitutional doctrines, expounded on the nature of the Union
   (a) The states are sovereign only so far as their power is not qualified by the Constitution, but only the Constitution and the national government are sovereign over the people.
   (b) A disagreement between the states and the national government is settled by the Federal courts, the amending process or regular elections.
   (c) He ended with Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable
   (3) Hayne countered that the Federal government was a compact between the states, and that each party was the rightful judge of infringements upon its rights.
   (a) Questions of sovereignty are not subject to judicial consideration
   (b) The right of state interposition is as full and complete as it was before the Constitution was formed .
   (4) Webster countered that the Constitution was not a compact but was established as a popular government with a distribution of powers binding upon the national government and the states.
3. Jackson's Break with Calhoun
   a. Jefferson Day Dinner 13 April 1830
   (1) At a dinner arranged by Benton and Hayne to align Democrats with Jeffersonian principles and to signify the alliance between the West and the South, numerous toasts alluded to the propriety of state sovereignty and nullification.
   (2) Jackson's well-phrased toast stated Our Union: It must be preserved . (later amended when printed to read Our Federal Union . . .).
   (3) John C. Calhoun responded: The Union, next to our liberty, most dear . May we always remember that it can only be preserved by distributing equally the benefits and burdens of the Union ..
   (4) This exchange illustrated growing differences between Jackson and Calhoun
   b. Calhoun's 1818 Anti-Jackson Actions Surfaced
   (1) Jackson learned in 1830 that Calhoun, Secretary of War in 1818, had supported measures to punish Jackson for his actions in the Florida Seminole campaign.
   (2) Persons hoping to discredit Calhoun informed Jackson of this charge.
   (3) Jackson asked Calhoun for an explanation, but was not satisfied by it.
   (4) Calhoun published a pamphlet containing the correspondence on the Seminole affair which angered Jackson and completed the rift between them.
   (5) Jackson began to support Martin Van Buren as his successor to the presidency.
4. Eaton Affair
   a. The split in the cabinet between Calhoun's supporters and Van Buren's supporters was magnified in a Washington social feud involving a barmaid, Peggy O'Neale , who in 1829 had become the second wife of Secretary of War John H. Eaton .
   (1) When Calhoun's wife and other cabinet wives refused to receive her, Jackson's support of Mrs. Eaton soon became a political issue.
   (2) When the issue was raised in a cabinet meeting, the only one to support Peggy Eaton besides the President was the widower, Martin Van Buren.
   b. Van Buren resigned, in order to precipitate a Cabinet reorganization, and Eaton offered his resignation as well, both of which were accepted by Jackson
   c. Jackson then asked for the resignation of the Treasury Secretary, Secretary of the Navy, and Attorney General, all of whom gave their resignations.
   d. Jackson appointed Van Buren Minister to England, although the Senate rejected it (his critics believing that it would end his career) and Eaton governor of Florida.
   e. The Cabinet was reorganized to promote harmony, leaving only Postmaster General William T. Barry from the original cabinet.
E. Election of 1832 - Use of a National Nominating Convention
1. Background -- Beginnings of Splinter Political Parties
   a. Workingmen's Party -- Organized in 1828 in Philadelphia,
   (1) They wanted free public education and the protection of mechanics against competition from prison contract labor.
   (2) In NY (1829) they were split by Jackson-supporters of Van Buren.
   b. Anti-Masonic Party
   (1) When William Morgan mysteriously disappeared after preparing an expose of Freemasonry, an investigation did not solve the mystery of his disappearance, but revealed that most NY officeholders were Masons
   (2) Opponents of Jackson, also a Mason, exploited the subsequent popular reaction against Freemasonry to form an Anti-Jackson political party.
   (3) The party declined after 1836 and was absorbed by the Whigs.
2. Candidates
   a. Democrats, as they were now formally called, in Baltimore renominated Andrew Jackson for a second term and Martin Van Buren for Vice-President but Southerners forced the adoption of a two-thirds rule -- nominees had to have 2/3 of the delegate vote before receiving the nomination.
   b. National Republican convention in Baltimore nominated Henry Clay for President and John Sergeant (PA) for Vice-President.
   c. Anti-Masons in Baltimore
   (1) Antipathy to secret societies spread to other states and a national convention of Anti-Masons nominated William Wirt (MD) for president and Amos Ellmaker (PA) for vice-president.
   (2) It was the first third party in the US, the first party to hold a national nominating convention, and the first to announce a platform.
3. Campaign
   a. The primary issue was the Bank of the United States with Biddle campaigning hard for Henry Clay
   b. The National Republicans were identified with conservative interests.
   c. Western agrarian and frontier interests sided with Jackson as well as Easterners who did not like privileged corporations.
   d. Jackson's critics dubbed him King Andrew the First .
4. Results
   a. Jackson won 16 of 24 states with 219 electoral ( 687,502 popular) votes, Clay had 49 electoral (530,189 popular) votes and Wirt carried Vermont (7 electors).
   b. South Carolina's electors went to John Floyd (VA) and Henry Lee (Mass).
   c. Van Buren received 189 electoral votes, although Pennsylvania's electors cast its 30 votes for Senator William Wilkins, a favorite son.
F. Domestic Issues -- Second Term
1. Death of the National Bank
   a. Jackson interpreted his election as a popular mandate to proceed against the Bank of the US and started removing Federal funds, depositing them in select state banks beginning in October, using 23 state banks, called "pet banks," by the end of 1833.
   b. Jackson justified his actions in his annual message to Congress, claimed complete responsibility for removing the deposits on the grounds that the bank had tried to influence elections.
   c. Henry Clay introduced two resolutions in the Senate which censured the actions of the Treasury and of Jackson over this issue, both of which were adopted.
   d. Jackson supporters in the House passed 4 resolutions in support of his Bank policy
   Jackson's conciliatory actions toward the Senate were rejected, as well as Taney , his nomination for the Treasury
   e. Sen Benson successfully expunged the censure from the Senate record (January 1837)
   f. The Bank died and was rechartered as the Bank of the US of Philadelphia.
   g. Deposit Act required the Secretary of the Treasury to designate at least one bank in each state and territory as the place of public deposit
   (1) The banks were assigned the general services previously given to the national government by the Bank of the US.
   (2) It also required that surplus revenue in excess of $5 million be distributed among the states as a loan subject to recall although it was never recalled.
2. Specie Circular July 1836
   a. The use of paper currency was expanded by Biddle's banking policies, causing inflation and land speculation to increase.
   (1) In 1823 the average Bank notes issued was $4.5 million but by 1831 it increased to $19 million
   (2) The bank also made credit and currency more abundant in the West and South, causing land sales to skyrocket ($2,623,000 in 1832 to $24,877,000 in 1836).
   b. Jackson ordered the issuance of the Specie Circular which provided that after 15 August 1836, only gold, silver or Virginia land scrip would be accepted by the government in payment for public lands, although paper money was permitted until 15 December for parcels of land up to 320 acres purchased by actual settlers or bona fide residents of the state in which the save was made.
   c. The purpose -- to repress "alleged frauds" from "the monopoly of the public lands in the hands of speculators and capitalists" and the "ruinous extension" of bank notes and credit
   d. Although public-land sales were reduced in the West, the circular taxed the inadequate resources of the state "pet" banks, drained specie from the East, led to hoarding, and weakened public confidence in the state banks.
   e. After Jackson defended the circular in his annual message in December 1836, and recommended that land sales be limited to actual settlers, Congress passed a measure that rescinded the Specie Circular, but it was pocket-vetoed by Jackson.
   f. The Specie Circular was not repealed until a joint resolution in May 1838.
3. Other Events
   a. Assassination Attempt
   (1) Richard Lawrence fired two pistols at Jackson as he left the House chamber on 30 January 1835, although Jackson was unharmed because the pistols misfired.
   (2) Lawrence was adjudged insane and committed to an institution.
   b. James Madison died (28 June 1836) at his home in Montpelier Virginia.
G. Second Term -- Foreign Policy Issues -- Annexation of Texas
1. Because of instability of the government of the Republic of Mexico, Anglo-Americans in Texas felt forced into separating from Mexico and establishing an independent Republic which immediately sought union with the US
2. Because Sam Houston , first president of the Republic of Texas, was good friends with Jackson, and because the Texicans had overwhelmingly favored annexation with the US, it was hoped that the US would add Texas as a new territory or state.
3. But US abolitionist forces raised constitutional questions over the addition of foreign territory, not yet recognized as independent by the original holder or by other nations.
4. In addition, the US was negotiating with Mexico to extend the LA Purchase boundary as far west as the Rio Grande River for $5 million, although this action only made the Mexican government suspicious of the US.
5. Although resolutions favoring the addition of Texas passed both houses of Congress and Jackson was sympathetic to Texas, he believed that the US had treaty obligations with Mexico and until Mexico recognized Texas as independent, the US would be neutral over the Mexican struggle nvolving Texas.
   a. Furthermore, recognition of Texas (even without its annexation) might lead to war with Mexico, which could pull in other European nations on the Mexican side.
   b. Therefore, Jackson proceeded cautiously regarding Texas, to the disappointment of many Texans, an action which delayed adding Texas to the US for ten years.
6. But as a last presidential action, Jackson appointed a charge d' affaires from the US, Alcee La Branche (LA), which in effect officially recognized the independence of Texas.
H. Election of 1836
1. Rise of Other Political Parties
   a. Whig Party
   (1) When National Republicans combined with Calhoun forces to secure passage of the Senate censure resolutions, a political coalition on a national scale resulted;
   (2) The name Whig , adopted in 1834, came to designate the coalition of political groups led by Clay, Webster and Calhoun, who opposed Jackson;
   (3) Included in this loose coalition were
   (a) National Republican supporters of Clay, Adams, the "American System"
   (b) states' rights groups opposed to Jackson's stand on nullification;
   (c) former Jackson supporters who were alienated by his US Bank policy;
   (d) Southern planters and Northern industrialists; and,
   (e) gradually after 1836, the remnants of the Anti-Masonic party.
   b. Loco-Focos
   (1) Radical urban Jacksonian Democrats, inheriting the mantle of the Working-men's party in NY, emerged in 1834-35 as the Equal Rights party.
   (2) They divided with Democratic regulars over Jackson's banking policies, which they regarded as inflationary.
   (3) This faction, called "loco-focos," fought the financial interests that applied for bank and corporation charters;
   (a) They advocated the abolition of monopolies, and special privileges
   (b) They desired hard money, elections by direct popular vote, direct taxes, free trade and Jeffersonian strict construction.
   (4) Its voice was the New York Evening Post .
   (5) Its name was derived from the new self-igniting friction matches, called "loco-focos", used when party regulars tried to remove them by leaving and turning out the lights, upon which the dissidents produced candles, lit with the new matches and proceeded to write their platform and nominate their own ticket.
2. Candidates
   a. Democrats in Baltimore May 1835 unanimously nominated was Martin Van Buren for President and added Richard M. Johnson (KY) for vice-president.
   b. Whigs, unable to agree upon a single candidate, decided to nominate several strong local candidates to throw the election into the House of Representatives.
   (1) Hugh L. White was chosen by anti-Jackson Democrats in Tennessee, and found support in Illinois and Alabama.
   (2) Supreme Court Justice John McLean, nominated by an Ohio caucus, withdrew in August.
   (3) Daniel Webster was nominated by a Massachusetts legislative caucus
   c. Anti-Masons in Harrisburg PA (December 1835) nominated William Henry Harrison (OH) for president and Francis Granger (NY) for vice-president
3. Campaign
   a. Van Buren pledged to continue in the footsteps of Andrew Jackson.
   b. Although Democrats did not formally adopt a platform, a committee address published in the Washington Globe was the equivalent to their first platform.
   c. All other candidates represented anti-Jackson factions throughout the country.
   d. Van Buren was dubbed the Little Magician and the Red Fox of Kinderhook .
4. Results
   a. Van Buren got 761,549 votes, Harrison 549,567, White 145,396, Webster 41,287
   b. Van Buren carried 15 of 26 states for 170 electoral votes including three disputed electors from Michigan, while Harrison received 73, White 26 and Webster 14.
   c. South Carolina's 11 electors voted for Willie P. Mangum (NC).
   d. For the only time in US history, since none of the 4 vice-presidential candidates received a majority of the electors, the vice-presidential election was thrown into the Senate, where Richard M.Johnson received 33 votes to 16 (February 1837).
   e. Jackson's Farewell Address reviewed his two terms, called for loyalty to the Union, and condemned sectionalism, monopolies, paper currency and speculation.
   

VI. Martin Van Buren's Administration 1837-40 (8th president)

A. Domestic Issues

1. Panic of 1837
   a. The reckless land speculation and the specie circular resulted in a serious downturn in the US economy which worsened as Van Buren took office.
   (1) The price of cotton fell by one-half in New Orleans.
   (2) New York's unemployed demonstrated against high rents and inflated food and fuel prices and one mob broke into food warehouses and sacked their supplies.
   (3) Several banks, beginning in New York, suspended specie payments.
   (4) Public land sales fell from 20 million acres (1836) to 3 1/2 million acres (1838).
   b. The effects of the panic persisted until 1842-43 particularly in the South and West.
2. Independent Treasury Act
   a. Van Buren advocated a specie currency, criticized state-chartered banks, and desired a scheme to establish Treasury depositories independent of state banks.
   b. Numerous bank failures aroused dissatisfaction with using state banks as depositories for public funds, creating sentiment for an Independent Treasury.
   c. In July 1840, Congress debated an independent treasury bill to establish Federal depositories independent of state banks and private business.
   (1) In the Senate, Calhoun attached a legal-tender amendment which called for a gradual reduction in the acceptance of notes of specie-paying banks in payment of government dues until 1841 when all payments should be made in legal tender (dropped before the measure passed).
   (2) The House did not pass it because of a split in Democratic ranks, which did not occur in the Senate, out of fear of Whig nationalist tendencies.
   (3) A reorganization of the 26th Congress in which Democrats gained control of the House, when Calhoun's faction united with Democrats, to pass the measure in June
   (4) The independent Treasury gave the government exclusive care of its own funds, requiring progressive enforcement of the legal-tender clause until all federal payments and disbursements were made in hard money after 30 June 1843.
   (5) The Act was repealed in 1841.
3. Abolitionist Controversy
   a. Congress was bombarded with petitions requesting the abolition of slavery and the slave trade in Washington DC.
   (1) Before 1836, such petitions were forwarded to the standing Committee on the District of Columbia, and did not create serious dissension in either house.
   (2) By 1836, such petitions reached a peak and crystallized sentiment among Southern congress-men that a discussion of slavery was prejudicial to the slave system and comity of the Union.
   b. The Senate adopted a satisfactory formula for disposing of the petitions, allowing presenters of the petitions to exercise their constitutional right of petition and enabled the foes of anti-slavery agitators to register their firm disapproval.
   c. Struggles in the House
   (1) The matter was complicated by Rep. John Quincy Adams (Mass), who defended the right of petition from the beginning.
   (a) Although not supporting abolitionist views, he held anti-slavery views.
   (b) Adams viewed Congress as having no authority to interfere with slavery in slave states, unless those states became a "theater of war," at which time (c) Congress's war powers did allow interference with the institution.
   (2) A special House committee under Henry L. Pinckney (SC) recommended the so-called Gag Rule which provided that all petitions on slavery or its abolition be tabled without being printed, and that no further action be taken.
   (a) Congress adopted the gag resolution, and two others, one that declared Congress lacked power over slavery in the states where adopted (182-9) and one that held that interference with slavery in the District of Columbia was inexpedient (132-45)
   (b) Adams abstained from voting, protesting that such resolutions violated the Constitution, House rules and the rights of his constituents.
   (3) In the second session of the 25th Congress in December, the gag rule was not immediately renewed (as required for each congressional session) and Northern abolitionists succeeded in getting their p