UNIT II -- 1763-1800
I. Subtle Changes Within Colonial Society After a Century of Salutary Neglect
A. Navigation Acts

1. Some friction had resulted from these trade acts, although they were laxly enforced so that they presented no real burdens for the colonists.
2. These acts did stifle economic initiative and left the colonists with annoying liabilities.
B. View of the Role of Parliament
1. The Glorious Revolution 1689 resulted in the strongest guarantee of parliamentary rights, but the debate over who had the right to rule continued
2. Views over who had the authority included:
   a. Popular Sovereignty - the final right to rule is retained by the people themselves;
   b. Tories - the crown should not be subject to the will of the people for any reason;
   c. Whigs - Parliament controlled and the crown ruled in cooperation with them.
3. When Parliament began to insist on its supremacy over all other bodies, including colonial legislatures, friction increased until the Revolutionary War.
C. End of Salutary Neglect
1. The last major war had originated over a struggle in the Ohio Valley between French claims and the influx of English settlers, leaving the British government with a large postwar debt.
2. As debate in Parliament over the 1764 budget occurred, George Grenville , the Chancellor of the Exchequer, proposed an American Revenue Act, Sugar Act 1764 , the first Parliamentary act designed to raise revenue from the colonies for the crown, rather than just regulate trade.
   a. Extended Molasses Act (1733), reducing the tax on foreign molasses but increased it on refined sugar;
   b. Placed new or higher import duties on non-British textiles, coffee and indigo, and wines imported directly from the Atlantic Island groups;
   c. Doubled the duty on foreign goods reshipped in England to the colonies;
   d. Forbade the importation of French wines, and rum and spirits from foreign sources into the continental colonies;
   e. Placed on the enumerated list hides and skins, pot and pearl ashes, iron and lumber for Europe, whale fins and raw silk.
3. Restructure of the Colonial Customs Service
   a. Previous customs from America recovered only one-fourth the administrative costs.
   b. Grenville was determined to enforce trade laws and make customs service profitable.
   (1) He established a vice-admiralty court at Halifax with jurisdiction over the American colonies, with suits brought there rather than in colonial courts;
   (2) an accused lost the right to sue for illegal seizure;
   (3) an accused had the burden of proof and an obligation to post bond for trial costs
   (4) stricter registration and bonding procedures were established for ships carrying enumerated and nonenumerated items;
   (5) US customs officials lost the privilege to live in England and delegate duties to trusted deputies

II. Continued Unrest In the American Colonies -- Justifying a Continued Military Presence
A. Pontiac's Rebellion May-November 1763 -- after Detroit surrendered to the English

1. The Indians demanded a lowering of prices on trade goods and to be furnished with ammunition
2. After the demands were not met, a Delaware Prophet and visionary from the upper Ohio and his disciple, Pontiac (1720-69), chief of the Ottowa.
3. A betrayed plan to take Detroit pushed Pontiac into open warfare, resulting in the rapid destruction of every British post west of Niagara by June except Detroit and Fort Pitt.
4. A plan to distribute blankets laden with small pox germs among the disaffected tribes was abandoned, because of the danger of exposure to British troops.
5. A retaliatory sortie against Pontiac was repulsed at Bloody Ridge in July, but the Indians were routed at Bushy Run near Ft Pitt.
6. Several Indian tribes signed treaties with the British before Pontiac finally submitted at Oswego and signed a peace treaty (July 1766).
7. Although Pontiac remained loyal to the British after his surrender, he was murdered in 1769 by a Kaskaskia Indian, who had been bribed by an English trader.
B. Parson's Cause
1. Anglican ministers in Virginia were paid in tobacco.
2. Because of a crop failure (1755), the legislature agreed to pay in currency, but the Privy council disallowed this action after complaints were made by the Virginia clergy.
3. The clergy then sued for their back pay.
4. In one case involving Rev. James Maury in Hanover County Court, the jury was swayed by young Patrick Henry who argued that by nullifying the act, the king had broken the compact between the governed and the ruler and thus had "forfeited all rights to his subjects' obedience."
5. The General Court ruled against the clergy and was backed by the Privy Council 1766.
C. Paxton Boys in Frontier Pennsylvania
1. Insecurity in the Pennsylvania frontier led to a raid on Indians by men from Paxton and Donegal
2. The Pennsylvania Assembly ordered the arrest of the "Paxton Boys" who proceeded to march east toward Philadelphia.
3. Benjamin Franklin persuaded them to forgo battle, allowed them to issue a formal complaint and obtained greater representation for frontier settlements in the legislature.

III.Other Legislation Which Caused Friction
A. Proclamation Line of 1763

1. After the French began to abandon their frontier forts in the Ohio Valley, an influx of new English settlers began to create unrest with western Indians
   a. Pennsylvania agreed in the Treaty of Easton not to settle west of the Alleghenies
   b. Indian Commissioners, appointed by the crown, forbade settlement west of the mountains but it was largely ignored.
2. William Petty , Lord Shelburne , head of the Board of Trade, formulated a policy regarding the newly acquired lands as a result of the Treaty of Paris 1763, in an effort to simplify relations with the Indians andto foster orderly colonial growth.
   a. His recommendation was that the Appalachians be the dividing line between English settlers and and Indian reservation.
   b. A colonial settlement was allowed in the upper Ohio with Indians settling east of the line.
   c. Without infringing on already existing colonies, three new provinces would be created - Quebec, West Florida, East Florida.
3. The final form of this proclamation was shaped by the Earl of Hillsborough.
   a. No Ohio valley settlement was allowed, but the entire area north of Spanish Florida and South of Quebec as far as LA, was under military jurisdiction with troops stationed there
   b. Settlers west of the Appalachians were ordered "to remove themselves."
   c. Land purchases from Indians east of the line were forbidden.
   d. Attempts to control Indian affairs through agents not directly responsible to colonial legislatures further angered the colonists.
   e. English law established in Quebec was deemed unfair and unCatholic to French settlers.
   f. It was rushed through the cabinet and signed by the Crown in October 1763.
   g. Trails westward were clogged in defiance.
B. Currency Act 1764 -- aimed mainly at Virginia
1. This action forbade the issuance of legal-tender paper currency by all American colonies.
2. It nullified all acts of colonial assemblies which were contrary to its terms and fined any governor who went along with such colonial actions.
3. The colonists soon opposed this action.
   a. Massachusetts led with a town meeting in Boston in May, denouncing taxation without representation and called upon the colonies to unite in opposition.
   b. Boston merchants agreed to do without English lace and ruffles while the town's mechanics agreed not to wear any leather work clothes not of Massachusetts make.
   c. Nonimportation soon spread to other colonies, especially New York.
C. Stamp Act 1765 placed a tax on newspapers, almanacs, pamphlets and broadsides, all kinds of legal documents, insurance policies, ship's papers, licenses, dice and playing cards.
1. The receipts were to be used for the defense of the colonies.
2. This first Parliamentary action aimed directed at the American colonies, when combined with the taxes from the Sugar Act, was supposed to raise one-third of the annual cost of colonial military establishment.
3. Because of the sensitiveness of the colonists, Grenville appointed Americans as stamp agents.

IV. Rise of Colonial Opposition
A. Stamp Act Crisis

1. The colonists reacted almost unanimously against this act, because of the novelty of direct taxation by Parliament, which they feared was the first of many taxes to come.
2. Its all-inclusive character transcended sectionalism.
3. Its affect on influencial colonial groups (lawyers, printers, tavern owners, land speculators, merchants, ship owners) broadened the base of the opposition.
4. Because jurisdiction for cases of violations of this act was given to vice-admiralty courts, fear was heightened that the right to trial by jury was in jeopardy.
5. Its imposition at a time of economic stagnation and currency problems createda colonial mindset that viewed the British policies as deliberately designed to weaken the colonies.
B. New Political Theories--American writers drew distinctions about the Stamp Act's illegality
1. Daniel Dulany , Considerations , a Maryland attorney, recognized Parliament's right to regulate trade, even if it produced a revenue externally, but denied its right to impose internal taxes on the colonies to raise revenue, because American colonists were not represented in Parliament.
2. Virginia Resolutions (1765) asserted that Virginia's right to govern its internal affairs had always been recognized by the Crown.
   a. It claimed that its General Assembly alone had authority to tax Virginians.
   b. During the debates over these seven resolutions, the member of the House of Burgesses who proposed them in May, Patrick Henry (1736-1799), made his famous "treason" speech, warning George III to remember the fates of Julius Caesar and Charles I.
   c. Caesar had his Brutus--Charles the first, his Cromwell--and George the third--may profit by their example. . . . If this be treason, make the most of it.
C. Sons of Liberty 1765
1. Organized to oppose the Stamp Act, secret organizations formed in many towns, using violence to force stamp agents to resign their posts and merchants to cancel orders for British goods.
   a. For example, in Boston in August vice-admiralty court records were burned, the comptroller of the currency's home was ransacked, and the home and library of Chief Justice Thomas Hutchinson was looted.
   b. Boston's stamp agent, Thomas Oliver (Hutchinson's brother-in-law), was forced by a mob to resign.
2. By November 1, the effective date of the Stamp Act, all colonial stamp agents had resigned as a result of colonial opposition.
D. Stamp Act Congress 7-25 October 1765
1. James Otis of Massachusetts proposed an intercolonial meeting to seek relief of the Stamp Act, and the Massachusetts Assembly dispatched a circular letter to each colonial assembly, suggesting New York City as the meeting place.
2. South Carolina, the first to accept, RI, CN, PA, and MD formally endorsed the proposal, while NJ, Delaware, and NY sent delegates who were chosen informally (27 delegates total).
3. John Dickinson , PA moderate, proposed fourteen resolutions, a "Declaration of Rights and Grievances," which claimed all rights and liberties of the king's subjects in Great Britain;
   a. They stated that taxation without the consent expressed personally or by representatives was a violation of basic English rights;
   b. They pointed out that the colonists were not represented in the House of Commons;
   c. They concluded that no taxes could be constitutionally imposed except by their own colonial legislative bodies.
   d. Specifically deplored was the use of admiralty courts in which to try cases.
E. Additional Demands for Its Repeal
1. Expanded Use of Economic Sanctions -- Nonimportation
   a. In New York City, leading citizens who agreed not to purchase European goods until the Stamp Act was repealed and the trade sactions of 1764 were modified, were soon joined by 200 New York, 400 Philadelphia and 250 Boston merchants.
   b. Business in the colonies was generally suspended when the Stamp Act went into effect, because everyone refused to use the stamps.
   c. Courts closed everywhere, rather than use the stamps (expect in Rhode Island whose governor refused to execute the law).
   d. Business returned before year's end without using the stamps, directly violating the law.
2. A movement in Britain for its repeal was already underway by November.
   a. Greenville's ministry had been replaced by the Marquis of Rockingham.
   b. The decline in British exports to the colonies pushed merchants in thirty towns in Britain to petition Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act, citing several bankruptcies.
   (1) Because 1/4 of all British imports went to the American colonies, and 1/2 of all shipping was devoted to the American trade, these boycotts hurt British merchants.
   (2) Many laborers in Britain faced lay-offs because of the American boycotts.
F. Repeal of the Stamp Act 1766
1. Debate in Parliament centered on a push to use the army to enforce it, led by Grenville, and a push to repeal it, led by William Pitt.
2. Colonial agents testified before Parliament as a committee of the whole.
   a. Agent Benjamin Franklin reminded Parliament that colonial legislatures also had incurred heavy expenditures during the French and Indian War, faced continued expense from Indian wars and lacked sufficient specie to pay the tax for even 1 year
   b. He warned that the use of troops could lead to open rebellion, endorsed Dulany's distinction between internal and external taxes, and called for the act's repeal.
3. A bill for full repeal passed the House of Commons 272-167, and after pressure was brought by the Crown, it passed the Lords in March, effective 1 May 1766.
4. Word reached New York on April 26, where nonimportation was immediately abandoned, and statues in honor of King George and William Pitt were authorized.
G. Modification of Trade Laws
1. The government also retreated on the Sugar Act by modifying duties on molasses imported to the colonies and by repealing the export duties on British West Indian sugar
2. But it required that all colonial products shipped to northern Europe had to clear through ports in Great Britain en route.
H. Declaratory Act 1766
1. Parliament also asserted its authority over the American colonies with a statement enacted into law on the same day that the Stamp Act was repealed, which declared that Parliament had full authority to make laws binding the American colonists in all cases whatsoever .
2. Because of the mounting opposition to the Stamp Act, this action was overlooked.

V. Additional Sources of Friction
A. Quartering Act 1765 (Not part of the Grenville Acts)

1. Requested by General Thomas Gage, it required civil authorities in the colonies to provide barracks and supplies for British troops stationed in North America.
2. A 2d act in 1766 provided for billeting in inns, alehouses and unoccupied dwellings.
3. Quartering Act Crisis
   a. After General Gage requested in December 1765 that NY's Assembly supply and quarter his troops in accordance with this act, the Assembly claimed that the act was heaviest on them and refused full compliance in January.
   b. A clash between British soldiers and citizens in August 1766 resulted in the wounding of Issac Sears , a leader of the Sons of Liberty.
   c. As a result the NY Assembly did not appropriate any funds for Gage's troops for which Parliament suspended its legislative powers, effective October 1767.
   d. New York finally allocated limited funds in June 1767, although the Board of Trade upheld Parliament's suspension of their Assembly.
B. Townshend Acts
1. Charles Townshend became Chancellor of the Exchequer in August 1766.
   a. He attacked the American distinction between internal and external taxes.
   b. He unveiled a new revenue for America, necessitated in part by a reduction in the British land tax which reduced the British government's home revenue.
2. He conformed to the American distinction, however, by imposing only external taxes.
   a. New import duties paid at American ports were placed on glass, white lead, paints, paper and tea, to pay for the defense of the colonies, defray costs of administering justice and support civil gov't.
   b. To efficiently collect the new duties, Townshend also clearly affirmed the power of superior courts to issue writs of assistance, established new vice-admiralty courts, and set up an American Board of Commissioners of the Custom to Boston, directly responsible to the Treasury Board.
C. Colonial Reaction to the Townshend Acts
1. A Revival of Nonimportation
   a. Several towns drew up lists of items which its citizens were encouraged not to buy.
   b. Plans were drawn up to promote domestic industry and employment
2. Farmer's Letters November 1767
   a. John Dickinson wrote a series of letters in the Pennsylvania Chronicle which was the most significant statement of the constitutional basis for opposition.
   b. These 14 essays were widely distributed as pamphlets in the colonies and in Britain
   (1) Again, Parliament's right to regulate trade was conceded, but not its right to tax in order to raise revenue in America.
   (2) The Townshend Acts were declared unconstitutional.
   (3) The suspension of the New York Assembly was hailed as a blow to the liberties of all American colonies.
3. Massachusetts Circular Letter February 1768
   a. The Massachusetts General Court denounced the Acts in violation of the principle of no taxation without representation , reasserted that the colonies were not represented adequately in the British Parliament and attacked the Crown's attempt to make colonial governors and judges independent from the people.
   b. Samuel Adams drew up a letter to the other colonial assemblies to inform them of the steps taken by the Court and to seek advice on how to proceed
   c. The Letter was attacked as seditious by the Massachusetts governor, Francis Bernard, who then dissolved the General Court.
   d. Lord Hillsborough, Secretary of State, denounced the letter in a dispatch in April to all colonial governors, ordering that their respective assemblies be prevented from endorsing it, by dissolution if necessary, but this order was too late.
   (1) NH, NJ and CN had already commended Massachusetts.
   (2) Virginia drafted its own circular letter in support of Massachusetts.
   e. When the Massachusetts House of Representatives refused to rescind the letter, the General Court was dissolved by Bernard in July, although 17 had voted to rescind.
   f. These 17 "Rescinders" came under heavy attack from the Sons of Liberty and seven lost their seats in the May 1769 Election.
D. British Reaction to Colonial Reaction
1. Seizure of the Liberty June 1768
   a. Customs Commissioners in Boston requested an armed force for protection when doing their duty and the government dispatched the Romney to Boston.
   b. When told that a customs official had been locked up while John Hancock's sloop unloaded wine from Madeira without paying the duty, the Liberty was seized.
   c. An angry mob assaulted customs officials on the dock, and demonstrated outside of their homes, before the officials fled to an island in the harbor and called for troops.
2. British Troops in Boston October
   a. Under the pretense of an armed conflict with France, a Boston town meeting called upon citizens to arm themselves and upon the Governor to reconvene the Court, but he refused.
   b. Delegates from 96 towns met informally in Provincial Convention in September but broke up before British troops arrived.
   c. Although the Sons of Liberty threatened armed resistance, two infantry regiments landed in Boston without incident and remained stationed there.
E. Mounting Colonial Opposition
1. Nonimportation was revived in Boston, following a more stringent agreement already in place in New York and debated in Philadelphia.
2. The Boston merchants barred the importation of items with the Townshend duties and a list of other items until the duties were repealed and New York merchants followed suit
3. By the end of 1769, only New Hampshire was not participating in some kind of ban on importation from Britain.
4. Virginia Resolves May 1769 in the House of Burgesses
   a. George Mason 's (1725-92) resolutions were adopted unanimously.
   b. They again recognized only the right of the Virginia governor and legislature to tax Virginians, condemned the British government for censuring the circular letters, and condemned Parliament's notion that malcontents be taken to England for trial.
5. Virginia Association
   a. Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee drew up an address to King George III before the governor dissolved the Assembly, after which the Assembly met informally and formed the Virginia Association, an nonimportation agreement banning the importation of goods on which a duty had been paid, of slaves and of several types of European luxuries.
   b. The Association idea spread to Maryland in June, South Carolina in July, Georgia in September, and North Carolina in November.
   c. Delaware and Connecticut adopted nonimportation pledges in the port cities.
   d. Rhode Island communities adopted a weak measure, until threatened with a boycott from New York and Philadelphia.
   e. New Jersey endorsed the sanctions of New York and Philadelphia.
F. Effects of Nonimportation
1. Losses of colonial imports were significant, although partially offset by an expanding market for British goods in Europe.
2. The Board of Trade as early as May recommended modifications to the Townshend duties be considered.
G. Continued Agitation in the Colonies
1. Battle of Golden Hill January 1770
   a. Alexander McDougall , New York Sons of Liberty leader, blasted the Assembly for appropriating funds for the Quartering Act, after earlier refusing.
   b. This led to clashes between citizens and soldiers which finished with a riot on Golden Hill, in which between 30 and 40 soldiers armed with bayonets clashed with citizens armed with cutlasses and clubs. (Several injuries, none fatal).
   c. McDougall was arrested and imprisoned although he never came to trial.
2. Boston Massacre March 1770
   a. After the troops arrived in 1768, minor clashes erupted in Boston between soldiers and citizens, some of which were ended only when soldiers fired shots into the air.
   b. A fist fight between a soldier and a worker escalated into a small riot on 5 March.
   c. When a swelling mob pressed upon a detachment of soldiers, the troops fired into the crowd, killing 3 instantly and 2 more were wounded mortally (including Crispus Attacks , black bystander)
   d. Captain Preston and six others were arrested, but were defended by two patriot lawyers, John Adams and Josiah Quincy .
   e. At the October trial, Preston and four others were acquitted and two were found guilty of manslaughter.
H. Repeal of the Townshend Duties April 1770
1. After the sudden death of Townshend and Lord Frederick North was Chancellor of the Exchequer in January, the move to repeal the Townshend Acts gained momentum.
2. Because North believed that a complete repeal might be viewed as a sign of weakness, he proposed that all duties be rescinded except for the duty on tea, pledging no new taxes on colonists
3. At the same time the Quartering Act expired without it being renewed.
4. As a result of this, the nonimportation agreements collapsed, repeal being a condition for their withdrawal, although Boston appealled for colonists to hold the line even against the tea tax.
I. Additional Agitation
1. Although some attempts were made to exploit the unrest in Boston, only compacts against the importation of dutied tea remained as the sole significant cause of conflict.
2. Battle of Almanace May 1771
   a. North Carolina Regulators , led by Herman Husbands , took the law into their own hands when protesting against the lack of representation in the Assembly.
   b. The Johnston Act made rioters guilty of treason.
   c. Gov. William Tryon (1729-88) led 1,200 men against the Regulators at Almanace Creek near Hillsboro.
   d. Many leaders were executed + 6,500 Piedmont settlers had to swear allegiance to the gov't.
3. Burning of the Customs Schooner Gaspee June 1772
   a. When it ran aground near Providence, 8 boatloads of men attackedand set the ship afire.
   b. A reward was offered for the capture of the culprits, who would be tried in England but hostility in Rhode Island prevented any tangible evidence from emerging.
4. Crippling the Power of the Purse
   a. Colonists were alarmed at the prospect of trying the case of the Gaspee in England.
   b. More alarming was the proposal that the Massachusetts governor and judges receive their salaries directly from the crown.
   c. Such actions would removed any colonial control over the executive or judiciary.
5. Committees of Correspondence November 1772
   a. New committees were organized in Boston to communicate with other communities what action Boston was going to take against this new threat.
   b. James Otis headed a 21-person committee.
   c. These committees expanded to other towns so that by February 1774, only NC and PA had not taken such action.
J. Continuing Problems with Tea
1. Tea Act May 1773
   a. To save the East India Company from bankruptcy, Parliament remitted all export duties on tea to the American colonies, but retained the import tax into the colonies.
   b. The Company was also permitted to sell directly to agents or consignees in the colonies, which enabled it to undercut the price of tea and undersell law-abiding colonial merchants who had previously purchased tea under the old system
2. American opposition centered on the threat of monopoly which the tea company had given to a select few merchants, acting as consignees.
   a. A meeting in Philadelphia demanded the resignation of Philadelphia consignees, and a Boston town meeting following suit.
   b. In New York City harbor pilots were warned against bringing any tea ship into port
   c. The Sons of Liberty branded tea importers "enemies", and pledged a boycott.
3. Boston Tea Party December 1773
   a. The Dartmouth arrived in Boston on 27 November.
   b. Two mass meetings resolved that the tea be returned to England without any duty payment, an action Governor Hutchinson would not permit.
   c. Hutchinson ordered that the ships proceed after proof that payment had been made.
   d. After 20 days, the tea became subject to seizure for non-payment of duties.
   e. On the 16th, at a meeting of 8,000 citizens, Sam Adams, after being informed of the governor's refusal to budge on the issue, signaled a disciplined group of men, disquised as Mohawk Indians, who rushed to the harbor, boarded the ships, and dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston harbor, destroying no other property.
   f. This was viewed by Parliament, however, as a violation of private property rights.
4. Further Tea Disorders (March-December 1774)
   a. Other tea was dumped in March by Sons of Liberty (also disquised as Indians) after a private consignee attempted to secretly land a cargo of tea in New York.
   b. A tea cargo in Annapolis and the ship Peggy Stewart was destroyed by fire in October.
   c. Tea from another tea ship was stored in Charleston's warehouses until the July 1776 when the Revolutionary government auctioned it off to raise revenue.
   d. A shipment of tea temporarily stored in Greenwich NJ was destroyed by fire.

VI. Final Steps to the Declaration of Independence and the Revolutionary War
A. Additional Acts by the British Parliament

1. Coercive Acts (March-May 1774) - result of the Crown's desire that Massachusetts be punished for the Tea Party in particular and the whole history of problems generally
   a. Boston Port Bill prohibited the loading or unloading of ships in any part of Boston harbor, except for properly cleared military supplies and shipments of food and fuel, until customs was compensated for the loss caused by the Tea Party.
   b. Administration of Justice Act protected Crown officials in Massachusetts from major suits before hostile provincial courts, by transferring the trials of officials to London, if it appeared that a fair trial could occur in Massachusetts;
   c. Massachusetts Government Act annulled Massachusetts' charter, allowing the Council to be appointed by the Crown rather than elected by the House of Representatives, permitting the Governor to fill all judicial positions down to the justices of the peace and banning all town meetings except one annual election session without the prior written consent of the Governor.
2. Other Acts
   a. Quebec Act (another "intolerable" measure) May 1774
   (1) It provided a permanent, highly centralized civil government for 60,000 French-Canadians.
   (2) Granted Catholics religious toleration and civil rights.
   (3) Permitted only purely local taxation with all other tax measures reserved for the British Parliament.
   (4) Extended the boundaries of Quebec to the Ohio River, to include territory claimed by Massachusetts, Virginia and Connecticut.
   b. New Quartering Act in June applied to all colonies and legalized the quartering of troops also in occupied dwellings, which expanded the earlier act.
B. Colonial Response - First Continental Congress (5 September - 26 October 1774)
1. On the same day that Gen. Thomas Gage arrived in Boston to back Gov. Hutchinson, a town meeting called for renewed economic sanctions against British goods until the Coercive Acts were repealed.
   a. Instead of nonimportation, Providence, Philadelphia and New York City issued appeals for an intercolonial congress to frame common measures for all colonies.
   b. Massachusetts agreed to such a meeting in Philadelphia, but proceeded with agreements against the use of British products for its citizens.
2. 12 colonies (56 delegates) to Carpenter's Hall in Philadelphia -- Peyton Randolph (1721-75) president
3. Delegates worked in secret and voted as a provincial unit, each unit having one vote.
4. Congress passed the Suffolk Resolves (by Joseph Warren of Massachusetts)
   a. The Coercive Acts were unconstitutional and should not be obeyed;
   b. The people of Massachusetts should form a government to collect taxes, but with-hold them from the royal government until the Coercive Acts were repealed;
   c. The people were advised to arm themselves and form their own militia;
   d. Stringent economic sanctions against Britain should be followed.
5. On 28 September, Joseph Galloway (1731-1803), PA conservative, proposed a union between Britain and the Colonies whereby each colony would govern its own internal affairs.
   a. The general affairs of the American colonies would be regulated by a central administration consisting of a crown-appointed president-general who could veto the acts of a grand council composed of members elected for three years by each assembly.
   b. The president and council would be a distinct branch of the British legislature, although inferior, with the consent of both this body and the British Parliament needed before a measure was law.
   c. This plan was defeated by a vote of 6-5 and removed from the records.
6. Declaration and Resolves 14 October
   a. The Coercive and Quebec Acts were denounced as unconstitutional, unjust, cruel.
   b. All revenue measures since 1763 were criticized.
   c. Thirteen Parliamentary acts were attacked which dissolved colonial assemblies, extended the jurisdiction of vice-admiralty courts or kept a standing peacetime army in the colonies.
   d. 10 resolutions declared colonists' rights, including the right to life, liberty and property , and the right of only the provincial assemblies to tax the citizenry.
   e. Economic sanctions were pledged until the acts were repealed.
7. Continental Association 18 October -
   a. Delegates pledged to
   (1) cease all importation from Britain effective 1 December;
   (2) stop the slave trade entirely;
   (3) not consume any British products or a number of foreign luxury products;
   (4) stop all exports to Britain, Ireland and the British West Indies by 1 Sept 1775;
   b. A committee was formed in every county, town or city to execute the Association.
   (1) Violaters would be punished with publicity and boycott;
   (2) Any province which did not keep the Association was to be boycotted.
   c. By April 1775, all twelve colonies were participating and Georgia adopted a modified version.
8. Congress adjourned 26 October after addressing a letter to the king and the British and American peoples, resolving to meet again 10 May 1775 if grievances were unresolved.
C. Additional Colonial Responses After the Continental Congress
1. Dominion Theory was expressed in the constitutional viewpoints of three men:
   a. James Wilson (1742-98) of Pennsylvania, whose Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority of the British Parliament rejected Parlia-ment's authority over the colonies in favor of the king alone;
   b. Thomas Jefferson whose Summary View of the Rights of British America appealed to George III to listen to "liberal and expanded thought;"
   c. John Adams' Novanglus Letters (Dec 1774 - Apr 1775) expressed the "dominion theory," contending that the American colonies were not part of the British realm and thus not subject to Parliament, each colony being a separate realm ruled over by the sovereign.
2. Preparations for War in New England
   a. When British troops stationed in Boston marched to Charlestown and Cambridge to seize cannon and powder belonging to the province, thousands of militiamen flocked to Cambridge, but hostilities did not break out.
   b. On 7 October, the Massachusetts House in Salem constituted itself a Provincial Congress and formed a Committee of Safety, headed by John Hancock, with power to call out the militia.
   c. Special groups within the militia (minutemen ) were to be ready for an instant call.
D. British Response 1775
1. Lord North's Conciliation Plan (February)
   a. When the petitions and declarations were presented to Parliament, a request made by Lord North to remove British troops from Boston was defeated 3-1.
   b. Parliament also rejected his plan of conciliation which embraced
   (1) the recognition of the Continental Congress;
   (2) a promise of no tax measures without the consent of the provincial assemblies;
   (3) American recognition of the "supreme legislative authority" of Parliament;
   (4) the Continental Congress voting a revenue for the Crown.
   c. Both Houses of Parliament declared Massachusetts to be in rebellion.
   d. North managed to get royal approval and eventually Parliamentary approval that promised to levy only regulatory taxes on any American colony that taxed itself for the common defense, and for the cost its own judicial and civil government.
2. New England Restraining Act (March)
   a. Parliament forbad the New England colonies from trading with anyone except Britain and the British West Indies.
   b. New Englanders were barred from the North Atlantic fisheries after 20 July.
   c. The act later included New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina after it was learned that they agreed to join the Continental Association.
3. General Thomas Gage as commander-in-chief of British troops in North America warned London that the colonists disliked the presence of British troops, requested that additional troops be sent for security reasons and also advised the king to suspend the Coercive Acts.
E. American Colonial Preparations for War
1. Crisis in New England
   a. A second Massachusetts Provincial Congress met to prepare the colony for war.
   b. British troops landed at Salem to seize military supplies but were turned back without incidence.
2. In Virginia, Patrick Henry in his Liberty or Death speech predicted that hostilities in New England could be expected at any moment.
F. Beginning of War - Lexington and Concord
1. Actions by General Gage - Pre-Revolutionary Commander of British North American Troops
   a. On 14 April 1775, Gage was ordered in a letter from Lord Dartmouth, Secretary of State for the Colonies, to execute the coercive acts, using force if necessary and to strike at once before the rebellious faction had time to organize, even if it meant bringing on hostilities.
   b. Gage moved quickly to seize the colonial militia's supply depot at Concord, 21 miles from Boston by road, secretly sending on 18 April, LTC Francis Smith with 700 men to Concord with orders to destroy the supplies there the next day.
2. Colonial Reaction
   a. The Boston Committee of Safety, learning of their destination, sent Paul Revere and William Dawes (1745-99) to alert the countryside that "the British were coming."
   b. Revere reached Lexington at midnight and warned Samuel Adams and John Hancock.
   c. Joined by Dr. Samuel Prescott, the three proceeded to ride to Concord but Dawes was turned back and Revere was captured by British troops.
3. Colonists at Lexington
   a. When Smith arrived in Lexington, he encountered 70 armed Minute Men under CPT John Parker (1729-75) on the Common, whom MAJ John Pitcairn, leader of the British advance, ordered to drop their weapons and leave the area.
   b. As the colonists began to file away with their weapons, a shot from an unidentified source, resulted in a series of volleys from the British.
   c. The Americans returned only a few shots and suffered 8 dead and 10 wounded.
   d. After destroying some supplies in Concord, Smith reformed his men to return to Boston, but was met by steadily swelling American forces who killed 14 soldiers.
   e. Smith avoided complete disaster only with the help of reinforcements at Lexington, but American snipers continued to inflict damage on retreating British troops until Cambridge, where they were protected by the British men-of-war in the harbor.
   f. Total Casualties: British - 73 killed, 174 wounded, 26 wounded. Of almost 4,000 Americans who saw action, 93 were dead, wounded or missing.
   g. The provincial army laid seige to Boston which lasted until March 1776.
G. Capture of Fort Ticonderoga 10 May 1775
1. In April the Massachusetts Committee of Safety authorized Benedict Arnold (1741-1801) with 400 men to attack a strategic post full of artillery and other military supplies, Fort Ticonderoga in western Massachusetts.
2. He clashed with Ethan Allen who also raised forces for the same attack but without command
3. Arnold and Allen with 83 men surprised the British garrison who yielded.
H. Battle of Bunker Hill June
1. In May Britain sent three major generals to assist Gage in Boston -- Sir William Howe , Sir Henry Clinton , and John Burgoyne .
2. Gage declared martial law (12 June), and offered a pardon to any American returning their allegiance to the Crown (except John Hancock and Samuel Adams), else, any American in arms or anyone who aided them would be considered a rebel and traitor.
3. The Committee of Safety made a counter move against Gage (15 June), taking the high ground on Charlestown peninsula overlooking Boston, moving to construct a redoubt on Breed's Hill .
4. When the American position was discovered, they immediately came under fire from British ships in Boston harbor but Gage had to wait for a favorable tide before landing.
5. Gen. Howe with 2,400 British troops engaged the 1,600 Americans under COL William Prescott who twide repelled the British troops.
6. Only when their supply of powder gave out did the Americans retreat to Bunker Hill before being routed by the British, who decided not to proceed to Cambrdge.
7. Although technically a British victory, they lost 1,054 casualties, including many officers, while the Americans suffered 100 dead, 267 wounded and 30 taken prisoner.
8. Washington reached Cambridge on 3 July and formally took command of the army of 14,500.
I. Expedition Against Quebec (28 August-31 December 1775)
1. Upon hearing that Sir Guy Carelton , British commander in Canada, planned to invade NY, Congress authorized GEN Philip Schuyler to seize any points in Canada vital to American security.
2. Schuyler advanced with 1000 men before turning command over to BG Richard Montgomery (1738-75) who forced Carleton to withdraw to Quebec, enabling the Americans to capture Montreal.
3. Arnold with 1,100 volunteers moved on Quebec through Maine beginning 12 September and reached Quebec with 650, joining with Montgomery's 300 men (3 December).
4. The combined assault on 31 December met with disaster when Montgomery was killed, Arnold wounded, 100 casualties, 300 Americans taken prisoner, leaving Arnold with only the ability to maintain a weak cordon around the city through the winter.
J. Hostilities in the South December 1775
1. The Governor of Virginia, Dunmore, declared marital law (7 November) , began recruiting a Loyalist Army near a base at Norfolk, and raised a Negro regiment, but lost the planter support by offering any slaves their freedom who left their masters.
2. Dunmore was defeated by a combined force of 900 from Virginia and North Carolina, forced to evacuate Norfolk (11 December).
3. Dunmore destroyed much of Norfolk by fire (1 January 1776) before the Americans reoccupied it in February and completed its destruction as a base of operations.
K. The War Progresses
1. The South (February - June 1775)
   a. Gen Henry Clinton landed at Cape Fear NC (March) where he was to join with loyalists, but the loyalist army had already been defeated at the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge in February.
   b. Clinton's troops joined with Gen Corwallis to attack Charleston, whose defense was led by Gen Charles Lee , but when the British objective failed, losing over 200 casualties, active operations in this theatre ended for over two years.
2. Boston (March 1775)
   a. After Gen Henry Knox (1750-1806) moved artillery from Fort Ticonderoga within range of Boston Harbor Gen John Thomas and 2,000 men occupied Dorchester Heights near Cambridge.
   b. The British did not dislodge US forces and Howe evacuated British troops+ 1,000 Loyalists
3. Canada (April-July 1776)
   a. In April Gen David Wooster arrived to take command from Arnold, but Gen John Thomas had already decided to abandon Quebec after British reinforcements arrived to aid Carleton.
   b. The orderly American retreat was turned into a rout because of the reinforcements.
   c. An American counterattack at Three Rivers was not successful.
   d. The remaining American forces arrived at Fort Ticonderoga in July.
   e. The command of Lake Champlain seen as the key to all strategy, both Arnold and Carleton began to collect and build ships for a fleet.
L. France Aids the American Colonists
1. Count Vergennes , French Foreign Minister, ascertained from the Spanish minister that Spain was receptive to jointly secretly aiding the American colonies.
2. In May 1776 Louis XVI ordered 1 million livres' worth of munitions be supplied to the US via a fictitious company (administered by Pierre de Beaumarchais ) and Spain made a like arrangement.
3. The Americans received over 80% of the gunpowder through these sources (1776-77).
4. Before Congress knew of these arrangements, it authorized Silas Deane (1737-89) to act as a munitions agent in Europe.
5. Congress opened US ports to ships from all nations except Britain (6 April).
M. Military Balance Sheet
1. American Forces
   a. Strengths
   (1) widespread acquaintance with firearms
   (2) A superior rifle in range and accuracy over the smoothbore British muskets
   (3) A highly respected, experienced commander-in-chief George Washington along with many officers and men who had gained valuable experience against France.
   (4) Fighting in their own territory which was familiar to them
   b. Weaknesses
   (1) Conflicts with state militias occurred.
   (2) Short-term enlistments
   (3) A shortage of shelter and supplies both military and medical
   (4) One-third of the colonists were loyal to Britain, especially in the South
   (5) Women accompanied the soldiers , cooking and washing, but also requiring food, shelter and protection.
   (6) No efficient navy
2. British Forces
   a. Strengths
   (1) Well equipped, well trained well disciplined fighting force
   (2) A strong navy to land and transport troops, guard communication and supply lines;
   (3) A huge war chest which could be used to hire foreign mercenaries;
   (4) Many loyalists
   b. Weaknesses
   (1) The great distanc e between London and various British units in North America.
   (2) Unfamiliarity with the North American geography which was not like the European battlefields -- vast, varied, and no clear cut roads;
   (3) Did not adapt to the activities of Americans who used unconventional warfare , (like modern guerillas) - behind trees, when normally troops were wintered, etc.
   (4) Unclear war aims kept them from mobilizing the loyalists in the South and kept them fearful of inflicting too much damage because this was British fighting British
   (5) Poor recruiting was hampered because of low unemployment, and because of uncertainty over why the war was being fought, no outbursts of patriotism occurred
   (6) A low estimate of American forces , gained during the French and Indian War, made the British overconfident that their valuable experience from the war with France would cause no difficulty in beating an unskilled, poorly-disciplined Continental Army.

VIII. Beginnings of Permanent Government
A. Second Continental Congress (May - July 1775) -- Twelve colonies -- Georgia absent

1. Meeting three weeks after Lexington, a second congress convened in Independence Hall in Philadelphia, and became the government of the colonies until 1789
2. After Randolph withdrew on 24 May, John Hancock was elected president.
3. Congress put the colonies in a state of defense and adopted an address to the citizens of Canada, inviting them to join with the twelve American colonies.
4. Congress also assumed two additional functions of an independent government -- appointing commissioners to negotiate peace treaties with the Indians and establishing a Post Office with Benjamin Franklin as Post Master General.
B. Creation of a Continental army
1. George Washington was elected unanimously as commander-in-chief;
   a. He had a good reputation from the French and Indian War, was well-known, present at Congress in full dress uniform, had a reputation for trustworthiness, and wealthy so that it was not thought that he would use the position for profit.
   b. Selecting a Virginian illustrated that this was not an isolated struggle involving the New England colonies, but was a broad colonial struggle to keep colonial rights.
2. Six companies of riflemen from PA, MD and VA were authorized to march to New England and $2 million in bills of credit were issued to be repaid by the 12 "confederated colonies;"
3. Artemas Ward, Charles Lee, Philip Schuyler, and Israel Putnam were appointed major generals.
C. Olive Branch Petition (5 July)
1. Congress adopted a series of petitions written by John Dickinson which expressed colonial affection for George III, expressed hope for a restoration of harmony, and begged the king to prevent further hostilities until a reconciliation could be found.
2. Congress also adopted the "Declaration of the Causes and Necessities of Taking Up Arms" by Jefferson and Dickinson which did not ask for independence but stated that Americans would rather die than be enslaved, and hinted that foreign aid would be sought in the struggle if needed.
3. The King (23 August) declared the American colonies to be in open rebellion and widened the breach (23 December) by closing American colonies to all commerce effective 1 March 1776.
D. Congress Reconvened (September - December)
1. Georgia's presence on 12 Sept made this truly representative of all thirteen colonies.
2. Congress authorized a navy after Washington authorized COL John Glover of Massachusetts to convert fishing vessels into armed ships.
   a. Congress resolved to raise two battalians of marines, made plans to intercept British ships with military stores aboard, and declared formally on 25 November that British vessels were open to capture in retaliation for British raids on coastal towns.
   b. In December Congress commissioned officers for four Continental ships and named Eskel Hopkins from Rhode Island as commodore.
3. After being informed on 9 November that George III had rejected the Petition they said they were not denying the sovereignty of the Crown, but would not obey Parliament.
4. In November Congress appointed a 5-man Committee of Correspondence to seek aid from "our friends" abroad and received word from a French agents that France would welcome ships from America and might even offer material aid to Congress.

IX. American Shift In Attitude Toward Independence
A. Colonial Reluctance to Break with Britain in 1775

1. Beliefs Prevalent Concerning a True Government
   a. Most Americans believed that true liberty was only possible with a balanced government like Britain's - Monarchy, House of Lords (Nobility), House of Commons (the people).
   b. American colonists, fearing this loss of balance, were reluctant to seek independence.
   c. But in one year, they declared independence and sought full freedom from Britain.
2. Reasons for the Colonial Change of Attitude (1775-76)
   a. King's response to the Olive Branch Petition
   (1) He declared the colonists to be in rebellion , but assumed that the colonial trouble was the result of "Boston" rabble;
   (2) A simple show of force would cause New Englanders to back down, and the "better" colonists in the Middle and Southern colonies would back the Crown.
   (3) George III hired 18,000 Hessian mercenary soldiers who had a reputation as ruthless plunderers, which made this more than just a "family quarrel"
   (4) His Prohibitory Act (December 1775) barred trade in rebellious colonies.
   b. Thomas Paine's Common Sense (January 1776)
   (1) Paine issued the first call for independence in a pamphlet printed in Philadelphia
   (2) He pointed out the absurdity of having a continent governed by an island, attacked George III, the "royal brute of England" for troublesome measures against the colonies, flayed the monarchical system of government and demonstrated that a balanced government could be achieved without a king or a noble class, which America did not have any way.
   (3) His convincing arguments provided momentum for the shift toward indepen-dence which led to the writing of a document justifying a break with England.
B. Colonial Move Toward Independence (April - July)
1. By the Spring of 1776 the move toward independence was clearly on the rise when in April, NC instructed its delegates to vote for independence, a move soon followed by Virginia.
2. In June a resolution was offered by Richard Henry Lee that the United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States.
3. A committee was appointed (Thomas Jefferson , Benjamin Franklin , John Adams , Robert Livingston , Roger Sherman ) on the 11th to prepare a Declaration of Independence.
   a. The committee let Jefferson write the draft of the Declaration.
   b. Adams and Franklin made a few changes before presenting it to Congress on 28 June.
   c. Jefferson drew upon the prevailing current natural rights philosophy.
C. Declaration of Independence -- Addressed to King George III
1. The document compiled a long list of despotic abuses and ururpations by the king.
2. Parliament received no direct mention.
3. It asserted the right and duty of the American people to dissolve their tie to Britain and declared the United Colonies free and Independent states
4. Congress took a final vote for independence (2 July), twelve for (New York abstained)
5. Congress debated the final form of the Declaration making several changes before approving the final version without dissent (New York again abstained).
6. Copies were prepared for all the states and it was first publicly proclaimed on 8 July in Philadelphia and on the following day, the New York Assembly voted to endorse it.
7. Having been engrossed on parchment, signatures were affixed on 2 August.
   a. Most of the 55 delegates signed it.
   b. Matthew Thornton (NH), although not a member of Congress when the Declaration was adopted, added his name in November.
D. A Diplomatic Commission Appointed -- Congress appointed three commissioners (Silas Deane , Franklin and Arthur Lee Jefferson having declined) to negotiate treaties of amity and commerce with foreign nations (September) and with authority to borrow up to $2 million.

X. Revolutionary War
A. Phase One of the War 1776-77.

1. Background
   a. After evacuating Boston, Britain planned to use NY City as a base of operations, amassing 32000 men including 9,000 German mercenaries on Staten Island (August 1776)
   b. Battle of Long Island (27 August) cost the Americans hundreds of casualties before Washington skillfully withdrew his forces to Manhattan Island.
   c. Both Gen Gage and Admiral Howe made peace overtures, offering pardons to all who returned to crown allegiance when all extralegal congresses and conventions were dissolved
   d. A fruitless peace conference was held on Staten Island on 11 September between Howe and congressional appointees, Franklin, John Adams and Edmund Rutledge
   e. Howe permitted no negotiations until the Declaration of Independence was revoked.
   f. Washington abandoned Manhatten Island, rather than risk being trapped, and the British occupied New York City in mid-September.
   (1) No assault on the American position was made, causing a 3-week lull in activity
   (2) A fire in New York City destroyed nearly 300 buildings.
   (3) Nathan Hale (1755-76) was executed on 22 September as an American spy, stating I regret that I have but one life to give to my country.
   g. Washington again slipped away after the Battle of White Plains in October.
   h. British troops captured Fort Washington, taking 2,818 Americans prisoners.
   i. American troops wintered in New Jersey (Greene) and Pennsylvania (Washington).
   j. Howe's troops wintered in New York, but left garrisons at Trenton, Princeton, Bordentown, Perth Amboy and New Brunswick.
   (1) Washington learned that the Hessian garrison at Trenton under COL Johann Rall was unprepared for an attack, crossing the ice-choked Delaware on Christmas.
   (2) He split his forces and caught the Hessians by surprise.
   (3) After an hour of street fighting, Rall was mortally wounded and 918 Hessians surrendered (Five US casualties).
   (4) Washington occupied Trenton by the end of December.
   k. Howe reacted to the taking of Trenton and sent Cornwallis to engage Washington, but Washington surprised Corwallis and forced a withdrawal, leaving only eastern-most New Jersey clear of the enemy and restoring the shattered patriot morale.
2. British Knock Out Plan
   a. London, however, felt that the trouble was in New England, and planned to cut New England off from the rest of the colonies to end the rebellion immediately.
   (1) Gen "Gentleman Johnny" Burgoyne was to bring the main force down from Canada along the Lake Champlain route to the area near Albany NY.
   (2) Gen William Howe was to come up the Hudson River to meet Burgoyne.
   (3) Gen Carleton was to come from the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence area.
   b. This effort failed for many reasons:
   (1) Carleton, hindered by Arnold and Indians, did not arrive in time although he had in October 1776 destroyed the entire American fleet assembled by Arnold at the Battle of Valcour Bay before withdrawing to winter in November.
   (2) Howe with 15,000 troops went to capture Philadelphia first, expecting Tories in Pennsylvania to rally to the Crown, and although he forced Congress to flee on 19 September and occupied Philadelphia, he did not to aid Burgoyne in time.
   (3) Burgoyne was burdened by a heavy baggage train carrying the clothing of several officer's wives and of Burgoyne's mistress, which bogged down by the lack of adequate roads which he had to chop out of the forests.
   c. As a result Washington's army emerged from Valley Forge under the Prussian drill master Baron Frederick William Von Steuben
3. Burgoyne, feeling trapped by a force three times the size of his own 7,000 men, and suffering many casualties, surrendered at the Battle of Saratoga 17 October 1777.
   a. His remaining 5,700 troops, laying down their arms, were marched back to Boston
   b. If they promised not to fight again in the war, they were returned to Britain
   c. The victory gave Americans a much needed morale boost, proved they could withstand the best England had to offer and forced Britain to seriously reflect on the war
B. Congress Reconvened (March 1777) Samuel Huntington, President.
1. Congress authorized various commissioners to offer land and other compensation to any foreign government that declared war against Britain.
2. Foreign Officers were commissioned, including
   a. 20-year-old Marquis de Lafayette as a major general, volunteer without pay.
   b. The veteran "Baron" Johann de Kalb also received a commission as Major Gen.
3. Congress resolved (14 June) that the US flag would be thirteen stripes alternate red and white, that the Union be thirteen stars white in a blue field .
4. Congress was forced to flee Philadelphia in September with the arrival of Howe's forces, going to Lancaster and then to York, Pennsylvania.
5. Congress formally adopted thirteen articles of confederation (15 November), from a committee report headed by John Dickinson, but they were not ratified by every state until 1 March 1781.
6. As Lord North planned a new offer of reconciliation and tried to talk with US agents in Paris, the government of France, fearing that the US and Britain might come to terms, recognized US independence on 17 December 1777.
C. Franco-American Alliance February 1778
1. France tried but failed to induce Spain to join a tripartite pact against Britain.
2. France entered into two treaties with the US
   a. A treaty of amity and commerce granted most-favored nation status to each other;
   b. A treaty of alliance, to be effective if war broke out between France and Britain.
   (1) Article II stated as the aim of this treaty was to "maintain effectually the liberty, Sovereignty, and independence" of the US.
   (2) The US was given a free hand to capture Canada and Bermuda, while France could seize the British West Indies;
   (3) Neither could conclude a truce or peace with Britain without the other's consent
3. Lord North, to stop the ratification of this treaty, offered terms to the US, including
   a. repeal the Tea and Coercive Acts;
   b. a pledge that Parliament would impose no revenue taxes on the American colonies;
   c. the appointment of a peace commission to negotiate with Congress.
   d. North was even willing to suspend all acts back to 1763 involving the colonies.
4. The US Congress replied that the only negotiations would center on the withdrawal of all British troops and the recognition of US independence.
   a. One British commissioner tried to bribe three members of Congress.
   b. Two others appealed to the people over the heads of Congress, threatening great destruction if Americans did not abandon their French allies and make peace with Britain.
D. Middle Phase of the War (1778-80)
1. Introduction
   a. Neither side gained an advantage, but Washington forged a real army in the process
   b. Britain was put on the defensive and decided to take the war southward again, hoping to attract more sympathy from Loyalist leaning colonists.
2. War at Sea
   a. The US navy was no match for Britain's, but individual ships run by American privateers did on occassion successfully raid British possessions in the Atlantic.
   b. The revival of American exploits at sea in 1778 was underscored by the actions of CPT John Paul Jones who commanded the Ranger out of Portsmouth NH.
   (1) Jones commanded an old French vessel which he refitted and named the US Bonhamme Richard in Franklin's honor;
   (2) Jones met the British ship Serapis in September 1779 off the coast of England;
   (3) Although his ship was sinking, when ordered to surrender, Jones replied I have not yet begun to fight and linked his ship to the British ship.
   (4) After US marksmen inflicted heavy casualties, the British surrendered.
3. War in the Middle Colonies and the West
   a. Battle of Monmouth (late June) - Washington's advanced forces led by Gen Charles Lee at Monmouth Court House, engaged Clinton, retreating from Philadelphia.
   b. Lee was forced to retreat when British reinforcements arrived.
   c. Washington arrived and withstood Clinton's repeated attacks, his troops having been sufficiently disciplined at Valley Forge, before Clinton stole away at night.
   d. The British planned a series of raids in NY and through Pennsylvania's Wyoming Valley, terrorizing many settlements and massacring many settlers who had surrendered.
   e. In the spring George Rogers Clark (1752-1818) with 175 men traveled to the Ohio River, occupying Kaskaskia and other posts in the northwestern Ohio Valley.
4. War in New England
   a. French - US joint raid of a British garrison of 3000 at Newport RI July-August 1778.
   b. The arrival of the British fleet and a severe storm forced an American withdrawal
5. War in the South
   a. Clinton shifted British operations to the South, hoping for the aid of Loyalists.
   (1) In November 1778, 3,500 men landed near Savannah, Georgia.
   (2) Gen Robert Howe and 1,000 Americans were crushed before the British occupied the town in December.
   (3) The British overran Georgia in 1778-79.
   b. Americans successfully defended Port Royal SC and Col Andrew Pickens defeated a Loyalist army in Georgia (winter 1779), but Charleston SC fell to the British (May 1780).
   c. Americans did not successfully recapture Augusta, however, losing over 350, and failed to prevent the British from recapturing Savannah GA in June.
   d. Although Americans were successful in Tennessee, the British captured and set fire to Portsmouth and Norfolk VA.
   e. Battle of Camden
   (1) Andrew Pickens, Francis Marion and Thomas Sumter prevented the British from consolidating their strength in the South (August 1780).
   (2) On the 16th US forces met 2,400 British troops at the Battle of Camden and suffered almost 900 dead and 1,000 captured, although the tide was turned atop King's Mountain , forcing Cornwalis to retreat back into South Carolina.
   f. The command was given to Nathaniel Green , the fighting Quaker .
6. War in the North -- 1779
   a. Anthony Wayne + 1,200 men captured and dismantled a fort at Stony Point in July.
   b. Maj Harry Lee drove the British from their last major outpost, Paulus Hook , in NJ.
   c. Gens. John Sullivan and James Clinton successfully defeated Loyalists and Indians who were ravaging settlements in New York and Pennsylvania.
7. Benedict Arnold defected to the British side Sept 1780
   a. Why?
   (1) he was desperate for cash
   (2) he was mistreated by the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, under fire for his administration of Philadelphia;
   (3) he was found guity on two counts in a court-martial, for which he was officially reprimanded by Washington;
   (4) as a New England Protestant, he despised the US alliance with Catholic France.
   b. His treasonous activities
   (1) Arnold sold information as early as May 1779 to British General Sir Henry Clinton concerning US and French troop movements and the location of military supplies and also identified French spies in the British camp.
   (2) Washington appointed Arnold as commander of West Point on the Hudson, a position that he assumed on 5 August;
   (3) On September 21 Arnold negotiated with Maj John Andre to turn over the strategic post to the British for 20,000 pounds;
   (4) When this information was intercepted with Andre's capture, Arnold was given information about the capture, before his involvement was fully known;
   (5) Arnold fled to a British post and later led Tory attacks in VA and CN
   (6) Arnold was commissioned a BG in the British army, received 6,315 pounds in cash, an annual pension of 500 pounds for his wife Peggy, army commissions for three sons from a previous marriage, and after 1783 and annual 100 pound stipend for Peggy's five children, but he was forced to live the remainder of his life in England, shunned by family and friends.
8. Spain Enters the War June 1779
   a. Although Spain feared the loss of its American possessions and opposed US indepen-dence, when Britain refused to cede Gibraltar as the price of neutrality, Spain issued an ultimatum April 1779.
   b . When it was turned down, France and Spain in April at the secret Convention of Aranjuez gave Spain an entrance into the American war.
   c. France and Spain began joint operations in May and on 21 June Spain formally declared war on England, but refused to recognize US independence.or to pledge to fight for it until that independence was secured.
   d. Congress appointed John Jay agent to Spain, although he did not achieve recognition, an alliance, or a loan while in Madrid (January 1780 - May 1782).
9. Russia Remains Neutral February 1780
   a. After Britain attempted to blockade France and Spain on the continent, Catherine II stated that the Russian navy would be used to protect the neutral Russian trade, a blow to Britain because Russia refused to recognize naval stores as contraband.
   b. Catherine led other neutral European states to join a League of Armed Neutrality
   (1) Denmark and Sweden joined immediately.
   (2) Netherlands, Prussia, Portugal, Austria and Kingdom of the Two Sicilies joined within 2 years
   (3) England declared war with the Netherlands in December 1780.
   (4) Although the League did not aid the Dutch, it hampered British naval efforts against the Alies.
   c. Although the US sent a minister to Russia, Francis Dana, he was not received.
10. Congressional Peace Terms August 1779
    a. Congress determined minimum demands before peace could be obtained:
    (1) independence, certain minimum boundaries, complete British evacuation of US territory, rights to the fisheries, and free navigation of the Mississippi.
    (2) The final form removed the demand about the fisheries.
    b. Congress named John Adams chief negotiator of the peace treaty with Britain.
E. Final Phase of the War 1781-83
1. Congressional Actions
   a. A department of Finance was created, and Robert Morris became Superintendent of Finance in February 1781.
   (1) US finances were near bankruptcy after 1779, although France and Spain had provided subsidies and loans of $9 million.
   (2) The US Congress had issued paper currency for several million dollars, known as "Continentals," but without sufficient backing, the notes depreciated rapidly.
   (3) Morris proposed a national bank and the Bank of North America was chartered on 31 December 1781.
   b. Articles of Confederation were ratified in March 1781.
   (1) Their acceptance was delayed by Maryland, over the issue of western lands.
   (2) After Virginia ceded its western lands to Congress, Maryland ratified them.
   (3) The British-American colonies were now known as The United States in Congress Assembled and Samuel Huntington continued as president.
   c. US Peace Commission created June 1781
   (1) On the advice of the French Foreign minister, Congress placed peace negotiations in the hands of five men, rather than Adams alone;
   (2) Added were John Jay , Benjamin Franklin , Henry Laurens , and Thomas Jefferson.
   (3) Instructions were modified to stress that only US independence and sovereignty were essential, leaving all other matters at the discretion of the commissioners.
2. War at Sea
   a. US privateers reached a high of 449 in 1781
   b. The US navy captured or destroyed 196 enemy ships during the war.
3. War in the North
   a. Washington met with the French commander, Compte de Rochambeau , in Connecticut and planned a joint French-US attack in New York.
   b. Compte Francois de Grasse French naval officer, was left to either operate in New York or move against the British in Virginia.
   c. Washington and Rochambeau, although preserving the appearance of planning an attack on New York, move their armies across New Jersey toward Virginia.
4. War in the South
   a. Conflicts against Cornwallis, led by the forces of Greene, successfully pushed the British into North Carolina.
   b. Greene's forces were strengthened to 4,000 and he met Corwallis at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse , technically a British victory, but with heavy casualties.
   c. By the fall 1780, Britain only effectively controlled Charleston SC and its nearby vicinity
   d. Cornwallis decided to destroy the American training and supply bases in Virginia, moving northward from Wilmington in April with 1,500 men.
   (1) Reinforcements brought the British troop strength up to 7,500.
   (2) Although failing to capture Jefferson and the legislature at Charlottesville, Corwallis established a base at Yorktown in August, in order to keep open communications by sea between him and Clinton's forces in New York.
5. Surrender at Yorktown 17 October 1781
   a. When De Grasse blockaded on the York river and engaged the British fleet, Corwallis was hemmed in on land by Layfayette's and American forces, leaving the French in control of the sea off Yorktown.
   b. The Allied army at Williamsburg swelled with 9,000 additional troops and 7,800 French troops, and the seige of Yorktown began in late September;
   c. When Corwallis realized he was doomed, having lost three key points around Yorktown, he entered negotiations to surrender on 17 October.
   d. Clinton's arrived with 7,000 but, learning of the surrender, returned to New York.
   e. The Americans suffered 262 casualties to the British 552.
6. Lord North's government collapsed March 1782
   a. As a result of this second major surrender of British forces, dashing British hopes for victory, North's government was replaced by Rockingham.
   b. French victories in the West Indies in late 1781 - early 1782 forced Britain to seek peace.
   c. Sir Guy Carelton became commander-in-chief of British North American forces.
   (1) With plans for continuing the was abandoned, he concentrated all British forces on the seaboard at New York.
   (2) A skirmish at Combahee River SC was the last land action on the seaboard.
F. The End of the War
1. Paris Peace Talks
   a. Richard Oswald was named chief negotiator for the British in April.
   b. The Netherlands formally recognized American independence on 19 April and promptly loaned the US $2 million, followed by a treaty of commerce and friendship in October.
   c. As the US peace commissioners arrived in Paris, formal negotiations opened on 27 September, after the Earl of Shelbourne became head of the British government.
   d. Preliminary articles of peace were signed on 5 November without French approval, a violation of the earlier US-French agreement, and without Franklin's insistence that Canada be ceded to the US.
2. Terms of the Treaty of Paris 1783 , signed in September 1783
   a. British Concessions
   (1) Recognition of US Independence
   (2) Generous Boundaries
   (a) The St. Croix River divided Maine and Nova Scotia, the St. Lawrence-Atlantic watershed divide, the 45th parallel, a line through the Great Lakes and their connecting waterways, and a line from Lake Superior to the Mississippi divided Canada from the US
   (b) The Mississippi to the 31st parallel divided Spanish LA from the US
   (c) The 31st parallel and the Apalachicola and St Mary's Rivers divided Florida which was given back to Spain by Britain in the final peace treaty
   (3) ceded rights to fish off Newfoundland and Nova Scotia and liberty to dry and cure fish in unsettled areas in Labrador, the Magdalen Islands and Nova Scotia;
   (4) End to hostilities and speedy evacuation of all British land and sea forces
   b. US concessions
   (1) All debts owed to Britain subjects by US citizens would still be paid
   (2) A full restoration of rights and seized property returned to all Loyalists by the states.
   c. France, although miffed because they were not included in the treaty negotiations, did approve the terms of this agreement, so that this was not really a separate treaty.
   d. On 20 January 1783, Britain signed preliminary articles of peace with France and then with Spain before proclaiming a cessation of hostilities on 4 February.
   e. Articles of Peace were ratified by the US Congress on 15 April and the treaty was formally signed on 3 September.
3. Aftermath of the War in the US
   a. Newburgh Addresses -- March 1783
   (1) An army officer' delegation approached Congress with a list of grievances.
   (2) Maj John Armstrong at Washington's main camp near Newburgh wrote an anonymous address to army officers, which attacked Congressional "coldness," advised officers to resist moderating their demands, and called for a meeting to draw up a reason to justify defiance of Congress.
   (3) This letter had the backing of several civilian leaders who hoped to force the states to cede more power to Congress.
   (4) George Washington, however, skillfully blunted the movement on March 11, when he forbade the unauthorized meeting called for in the address, proposing a discussion of the grievances at the regular officers' meeting instead.
   (5) He spoke to the regular meeting, condemned the defiant tone of the addresses, expressed confidence that Congress would do the right thing, asked for patience and advised that no action be done to lessen the glory won on the battlefield.
   (6) The officers then adopted resolutions which affirmed their patriotism and confidence in Congress and disavowed the "anonymous" addresses which had circulated among them
   b. Loyalists Left the US
   (1) Over 100,000 Loyalists left the US for Canada or Europe during the war.
   (1) Many states had passed test oaths, that required a repudiation of loyalty to George III, and imposing severe repressive measures.
   (2) Many prominent Tories had been exiled, most Tories had been disen-franchised, and all had been expelled from state offices and doubly taxed.
   (2) A commission functioned until 1790 to recover lost property or compensation for these.
4. Results of the Revolution
   a. The 13 colonies became independent states, united under the Confederation of the US
   b. The US obtained title to a vast empire from the seaboard settlements along the Atlantic to the Mississippi.
   c. Republican state governments replaced royal colonial governments.
   d. The overthrow of the proprietary ruling class allowed men of all social levels to participate in the Revolution which broadened the popular base of political life.
   e. The confiscation of royal lands, proprietary estates, and Loyalist property produced a more democratic redistribution of property.
   f. All forms of rent previously collected by proprietary and royal rights were abolished.
   g. State legislatures between 1776-91 abolished almost entirely entail and promigeniture, the pillars of aristocratic land holding.
   h. The Anglicans were disestablished in colonies where it was tax-supported 1776-86.
   i. Slavery as an Institution was seriously weakened in the North
   (1) The Quakers established the first anti-slavery society in 1775;
   (2) Pennsylvania was the first state to pass gradual emancipation laws;
   (3) The slave trade was prohibited or heavily taxed in eleven states (1776-86);
   (4) Slavery was abolished in Massachusetts completely in 1783, and in NH in 1784;
   (5) By 1800, gradual or complete emancipation of slaves had occurred in the North, and was heading for a similar fate in the South.
   j. The reform of penal codes and prisons was advanced.
   k.The secularization and democratization of education occurred.