ENGLISH COLONIZATION

I. Early English Colonial Experience
A. English Approach to Colonization

1. 16th-century British society was based upon Protestant institutions.
   
2. Its government was a constitutional monarchy with a Parliament with increasing power
   
3. The new world climate was not as much of a factor for Great Britain as for Spain.
   
4. The area settled by Britain faced smaller nomadic tribes over a smaller land area.
   

B. Background for English Colonization

1. English colonies existed before England developed a concept of empire, but at first no specific plan for colonization or overall plan for settlement existed.
   
2. England became unified after the War of the Roses when the Houses of York and Lancaster merged with the marriage of Elizabeth of York to Henry of Lancaster.
   
3. Henry VII (1485-1509) strengthened the monarchy by reducing the power of the nobility.
   a. He turned down Columbus' brother who was searching for funds for exploration.
   b. Following an economic buildup, in 1497 he authorized a venture by John Cabot.to seek a Northwest passage. Cabot found a rich fishing area near Newfoundland.
   (1) When he returned to England, the king rewarded him with ten pounds.
   (2) He disappeared during a second voyage with his brother Sebastian (about whom rumors persisted that he had returned to England).
   (3) Because of Cabot's voyage, England claimed vast areas of territory but soon lost interest.
   
4. Henry VIII (1509-47) seemed more interested in fathering sons as legitimate heirs than in establishing English colonies.
   a. His only living son, Edward , was too young to rule without regents, dying at age 15.
   b. Henry's daughter, Mary , by Catherine of Aragon, whom he first married, ruled bitterly, briefly returning England to Catholicism during her five year rule, forcing many Protestants to flee the continent to further study in leading Protestant centers of Europe.
   
5. Another daughter, Elizabeth I (1559-1603), although "illegitimate" during Mary's reign, proved to be an able ruler.
   a. Elizabethan Settlement 1559 - Church of England moved decidedly toward Protestantism
   b. England gained naval supremacy after defeating Spain's Armada (1588) but had no empire yet
   
6. As English naval power increased, Elizabeth I encouraged the raiding of Spanish shipping and settlements.
   a. Sir Humphrey Gilbert wrote in 1576 that America was an island. If so there must be a way around it to the north.
   (1) He made a voyage to the New World (1578-79) to find the Northwest passage.
   (2) He returned to the Newfoundland area in June 1583 with five ships and 260 men but perished at sea on the return voyage in Sept.
   b. Sir Walter Raleigh 's Colony (1584-1602)
   (1) After Gilbert's half brother, Raleigh, received a renewal of the Gilbert patent, he sailed to the New World in ships commanded by Sir Richard Grenville and Ralph Lane .
   (2) The expedition searched the North American mainland, which he dubbed Virginia , in honor of the "Virgin" Queen.
   (a) They spied on Spanish defenses in the Caribbean and landed on Roanoke Island before returning to England.
   (b) He dispatched a colonizing party (Apr 1585) to Roanoke Island, leaving Lane in charge.
   (c) The colonists abandoned the area (June 1586), returning to England with Sir Francis Drake
   (3) Grenville returned with supplies to find the colony abandoned and left 15 men.
   (4) Another expedition under John White arrived in July 1587 and found no survivors, leaving another group of colonists.
   (5) White returned to England one week after his granddaughter, Virginia Dare (18 Aug), was born, the first English child born in the New World.
   (6) Unable to return until Aug 1590, Wjote found no trace of the colonists (except for the letters CRO carved in a tree and the word CROANOAN carved in a doorpost).
   (7) A final expedition dispatched in Mar 1602 made a futile search for survivors.
   c. George Weymouth searched (Mar 1605 - July 1606) for territory suitable for colonization for English Catholics, after English persecution of Catholics intensified
   
7. Motivating factors for English Immigration
   a. Desire for a quick profit
   b. A chance to start over with a variety of opportunities and vast amounts of land.
   c. Religious freedom
   (1) Although the Elizabethan Settlement made the Church of England more Protestant, in the minds of many it did not go far enough to purge the church of remaining Catholic vestiges.
   (a) Those wishing to stay within the Church of England but further "purify" it of remaining Catholic elements were known as Puritans who viewed themselves as true members of the Church of England who merely desired to make the Church better.
   (b) The struggle between the Crown as head of the Church and Puritans resulted in a Great Migration of them to New England during the reigns of James I , son of Mary, Queen of Scots (aka James VI of Scotland ) and his son, Charles I .
   (c) James I (1603-25) believed in the divine right of kings , saw nonconformity to his bishops as a threat to his authority as king of the realm and therefore stiffened in his opposition to Puritans and Nonconformists.
   (d) Charles I (1625-49) proved to be even more headstrong concerning the monarchy and ruled without Parliament from 1628-40, levying taxes by royal decree.
   (e) The struggle between Charles I and Parliament intensified into a civil war which resulted in the execution of Charles I and an end to the Migration.
   (f) Puritans ruled England during the Interregnum (1649-60) under Oliver Cromwell
   (2) Some, frustrated at the inability to further change the Anglican Church under Elizabeth I, eventually left the church and were called Separatists .
   (a) Separatists had no hope for the Church of England; it could not be salvaged.
   (b) Some migrated to Holland before migrating to the New World - Pilgrims .
   

II. Establishment of Virginia
A. Financing for Colonial Development

1. Four types of exploration and colonization financing methods were formed in the 1500s
   a. Trading Company or Joint Stock Company Colony - Hoping to find something of value to send back to the mother company, using individual investors.
   (1) With the king's permission, a company was formedwhich often had exclusive rights of trade in a particular area or over a particular product.
   (2) These company charters enabled the owners to sell stock or shares to private investors, who were hoping for dividends.
   b. Covenant or Self-governing Colony - colonies created and governed by the settlers (as at Plymouth, Rhode Island and Connecticutt).
   c. Proprietary Colony - One individual or group was given by the crown the right to govern or to settle a specified company (as in Maryland). The government formed could be any type except that colonists had to be guaranteed basic English rights.
   d. Royal Colony - remained under Crown control. For various reasons most English colonies lost their separate status and reverted to royal colonies by 1776.
   
2. As a result of Weymouth's explorations, two interrelated groups of merchants from London and Plymouth petitioned the crown in 1605 for a patent (granted in Apr 1606) to colonize for profit, rather than prey on Spanish settlements and shipping.
   a. Two Virginia Companies were authorized:
   (1) London or South Virginia Company was to settle the region between 34 degrees North and 41 degrees North (present-day New York city).
   (2) Plymouth or North Virginia Company was to settle the region between 38 degrees North (present-day Washington D.C.) and 45 degrees North.
   b. Because neither was to settle within 100 miles of the other, a neutral zone occurred.
   c. A company received all lands 50 miles north and south of the first settlement and 100 miles inland.
   

B. Settlement of Jamestown (20 Dec 1606 - 23 May 1609)

1. London Company sent 3 ships with 105 settlers to Chesapeake Bay who settled around Jamestown (Apr 1607) while simultaneously, the Plymouth Company landed 100 men in Maine (Aug 1607, but this was later abandoned).
   a. CPT Christopher Newport returned twice from London with supplies in 1608.
   b. Because of a poor climate, famine from a failure to grow many crops, disease and an antagonistic local Indian population, the colony was reduced to 32.
   
2. The colony, now run by a council, elected CPT John Smith , a soldier of fortune, president (Sept 1608).
   a. His compulsory work program ("He who shall not work shall not eat") emphasized self-sustaining agriculture (primarily maize) which proved to be a turning point for the colony's survival, but not its profitability.
   b. His capture by the Indian chief Powhatan gave rise to the "Intervention by Pocohontas " legend (although this occurred when he had left the colony in 1607).
   
3. Company officers requested additional help from the Crown who granted the colony a new charter (June 1609), which turned the trading company into a Joint Stock Company, placing its control into the hands of a company-selected council and extending its boundaries from "sea to sea and 200 miles north and south of Old Point Comfort."
   

C. Jamestown under Company Control (1609-24)


1. Several companies were anxious to invest in Virginia.
   a. No import or export duties were charged on goods to the New World.
   b. Settlers were promised land after working for the company for up to seven years.
   
2. Thomas Lord De La Warr arrived (June 1610) after some dissension in the colony.
   a. Smith had refused to yield authority to De La Ware's interim, Thomas Gates , but left finally (Oct 1609), because of a gunpowder burn, returning to London.
   b. The colony faced a difficult time during the winter of 1609-10 without Smith's forceful leadership, and was reduced again to only 60 survivors in 1610.
   c. Sir Thomas Dale assumed control of the colony (May 1611) after after an ill De La Warr left.
   (1) Dale Code imposed severe penalties for internal disorder.
   (2) He began construction of a fort at Henrico, fifty miles from Jamestown.
   d. Sir Thomas Gates (Aug 1611 - early 1614), completed stockades at Henrico.
   
3. A Third Charter (granted in Mar 1612) placed Bermuda under company control and allowed the use of a lottery in England as a fundraising device.
   a. Dale served as governor (early 1614 to Apr 1616).
   b. George Yeardley was acting governor in 1616-17.
   c. Sir Samuel Argall misruled as deputy Governor until Nov 1618.
   d. John Rolfe introduced (1612) a profitable marketable cash crop -- West Indian Tobacco
   (1) The first shipment of Tobacco went to England in Mar 1614.
   (2) Because several settlers received their own land, they grew their own tobacco and the company suffered financially.
   (3) Although frowned upon by James I, pipe smoking became fashionable in court and tobacco became very popular in England.
   (4) Although some profit was made by the settlers, most of it was made by the tobacco merchants in London.
   e. Rolfe's marriage to Pocohontas (1614) briefly stabilized relations with local Indians
   
4. Sir Edwin Sandys , a Puritan with a high position in Elizabeth I's court and the Earl of Southampton, gained control of the company (1618) and introduced reforms through Yeardley who governed from Apr 1619.
   a. The harsh legal code was repealed in 1619, allowing the settlers the Rights of Englishmen including a representative assembly .
   b. A General Assembly composed of 22 burgesses (2 from each town, hundred or plantation), the Governor and Council met in the Jamestown church from 9-14 Aug 1619 -- first colonial legislature in the New World , the beginning of representative government).
   c. A system of granting land to subordinate corporations was continued.
   (1) To encourage new settlers, a new headright system was installed - any investor who bought a share for 12 1/2 shillings, or went to the Virginia Colony, received fifty acres of land.
   (2) To encourage agricultural settlements and families, the company sent ninety women to the colony for more permanence. (Payment for a wife was for her passage to the colony, about 125 pounds of tobacco).
   d. A Dutch man-of-war stopped in Jamestown and left 20 black "indentured" servants -- the introduction of black labor in the English colonies .
   
5. Under governor Sir Francis Wyatt (1621-24).
   a. A break in 1619 between the Sandys-Southampton group and Sir Thomas Smith , ex-treasurer + the lottery suspension by the Privy Council in 1622 resulted in many unprofitable years
   b. The company went into receivership to be managed by the Privy Council starting in July 1623.
   c. Its charter was revoked (24 May 1624) and the colony became a royal colony.
   d. As a profit venture, the joint-stock company failed in America and was abandoned after the Virginia colony.
   
6. Between 1607 - 19, 1,650 settlers had left England for Virginia.
   a. 300 returned to England
   b. Of the 1,350 who remained, only 351 were alive at the beginning of 1619.
   c. Within five years, of 8,000 immigrants, Jamestown had only 1,132 population.
   d. In 1622, a major Indian uprising killed 347 settlers, including John Rolfe (after Pocohontas had died in London).
   
7. The labor problem at least temporarily as well as the distribution of land was greatly aided by the use of indentured servants.
   a. For passage to the New World, the one paying the passage received land while the one who migrated to Virginia worked for a specified period of years, usually from 5 to 7 years.
   b. The servant was given food, shelter and clothing, but no wages.
   c. At the end of the period of service, the servant received something (lump cash sum, tools, land).
   
8. Because the company continued to suffer financially, when the company went bankrupt, at Sandys' request Virginia became the first Royal colony.
   a. The crown appointed the governor and the council which governed the colony.
   b. Colonists retained the basic rights of Englishmen.
   c. Although the crown did not call for a continuation of the House of Burgesses, the governors found it impossible to rule without it.
   d. The House of Burgesses met annually after 1629.
   
9. Why didn't the original promoters of the colony make a profit?
   a. Unrealistic goals -- No valuable commodity was produced by Indians for which the company could trade and no gold existed in the area making agriculture the key to wealth and industry.
   b. Many early settlers were not used to gathering or producing their own food , "gentlemen" ignorant of woodlore who did not know how to get their own game and fish (although the area was plentiful in game, nuts and berries, and fish) and who scorned manual labor who had come for gold, not farmers coming to establish an agricultural settlement.
   c. Poor knowledge of health practices led to settling around marsh lands which fostered diseases
   d. Working on company lands provided little incentive for artisans and skilled laborers who were sorely needed in Virginia.
   e. Profitable staple crops like tobacco were discovered too late for the company.
   f. The relationship with local Indians was unstable especially after John Smith left.
   (1) It stabilized after John Rolfe married Pocahontas but deteriorated after her death in London of small pox in 1620.
   (2) A 2nd major uprising in 1644 resulted in nearly 350 settlers' death, after which the Indian rebellion was put down in such a manner that a similar massive uprising never reoccurred.
   g. Bickering in London among company officials over policy hurt the company.
   

D. Virginia as a Royal Colony


1. James I appointed Wyatt as governor in 1624.
   a. Yeardley became governor in Mar 1626 followed by Francis West (Nov 1627 - Mar 1629) who convened a General Assembly in Mar 1628.
   b. John Harvey served until 1639 and was replaced by Wyatt again (1639-41).
   
2. Virginia under Sir William Berkeley (1606-77), governor (1642-52).
   a. He abolished the poll tax.
   b. In Jan 1649 Virginia declared allegiance to the Stuarts following the death of Charles I and became a refuge for Cavaliers fleeing England.
   (1) Parliament in Oct 1650 retaliated with a blockade on Virginia, sending two armed vessels.
   (2) Berkeley and the Council submitted in Mar 1652, receiving liberal terms.
   
3. The Burgesses chose as governor Richard Bennett , a Parliamentary commissioner.
   
4. Samuel Matthews , as successor until his death in 1659, threatened to dissolve the burgesses, who removed him temporarily as an object lesson, before re-electing him.
   
5. When the Protectorate collapsed in 1660, the burgesses controlled Virginia until lawful authority was restored in England, electing the Royalist Berkeley governor in Mar who was then commissioned by Charles II upon the Restoration in England.
   
6. Virginia after the Restoration
   a. Because of the Acts of Trade and Navigation (1650), tobacco prices declined.
   b. Efforts to decrease tobacco production occurred, replacing it with cloth works in every county.
   c. The Dutch Wars (1664, 1672) caused severe losses to the tobacco fleet.
   d. Continued unrest occurred after a severe cattle epidemic, a new poll tax was introduced and many servant uprisings happened.
   e. A further outcry occurred from Virginia when Charles II granted proprietary rights to a 5 million acre tract of land which the Virginia colony claimed.
   
7. Bacon's Rebellion
   a. Nathanial Bacon of Henrico County without commission led several frontiersmen against bands of renegade Susquehannock Indians for which he was declared a traitor in May 1676.
   b. He then led 500 against Jamestown unopposed, forcing Gov. Berkeley to sign his commission.
   c. Berkeley could not raise sufficient forces against Bacon, and fled East to the shore.
   d. Large plantation owners supported Bacon who continued to make retaliatory raids against the Indians, before driving Berkeley's forces out of Jamestown.
   (1) After Bacon died suddenly on 18 Oct, rebel forces were captured or surrendered under promise of amnesty.
   (2) COL Herbert Jeffreys was sent to restore order, but his royal pardons for the rebels were nullified by Berkeley (10 Feb 1677).
   (3) 23 rebels were executed before Jeffreys formally took over the government.
   
8. Later Governors
   a. Sir Henry Chicerley served as governor from Nov 1678 - May 1680 followed by Lord Culpepper (to Sept 1683).
   b. Lord Howard of Effingham (1683-89) struggled with Virginia's legislature who presented James II with a list of grievances in Sept 1688.
   (1) James II was removed under the Revolution of 1689 , and replaced by William and Mary in Feb 1689 before the grievances were addressed.
   (2) Howard's removal and the accession of William and Mary were hailed in VA as victories
   

III. Establishment of Maryland
A. Background -- Ten years after Virginia became a Royal Colony

1. A second plantation colony (England's fourth colony of the original thirteen) was established near VA by George Calvert (1580-1632) who resigned as James I's Secretary of State (1625) after converting to Catholicism, although he was declared First Lord Baltimore by James I.
   a. As a member of the Virginia Company (1609-20) and the Council for New England (1622), Calvert purchased the southeastern peninsula of Newfoundland and created the colony of Avalon, which did not prosper.
   b. Although he settled in Virginia in Oct 1629, he was forced to leave when he refused to take the necessary Oaths of Allegiance and Supremacy to the Monarch.
   c. Calvert applied for a proprietary charter from Charles I for territory north of the Potomac River, but he died in 1632 before the request was finalized, which then passed to his son, Cecilius , 2d Lord Baltimore (1605-75).
   d. He established the first proprietory colony, Maryland, named after Queen Henrietta Maria
   e. The charter stipulated:
   (1) Colonists must be guaranteed basic English rights.
   (2) Calvert could make laws with the consent of free male property owners.
   (3) The first legislative assembly met in 1635, and split into two houses in 1650.
   (4) Because the charter did not forbid the establishment of churches other than Protestant, Lord Baltimore made Maryland a haven for English Catholics.
   (5) The proprietor could grant manorial estates which he did to many Catholic relatives and friends but settlers could not be attracted without the promise of land of their own.
   (6) Few Catholics would migrate, and Protestant settlers soon outnumbered Catholics, who were now threatened with restrictions in their own colony.
   

B. Settlement of Maryland

1. The first 200 settlers arrived in Virginia in Feb 1634.
   
2. Calvert, ruling by Deputy, appointed as first governor his brother, Leonard Calvert , who established a manorial government and fostered friendly relations with the Indians.
   
3. Trouble brewed between these settlers and William Claiborne (1587-1677) of Virginia over territory within Maryland's grant but which had been used by Claiborne.
   
4. The crown ruled against Claiborne's claim in Apr 1638.
   
5. During the Interregnum
   a. The Calverts were ousted from their proprietorship briefly (and again under William III) and forced to flee to Virginia after additional trouble from Claiborne and from Richard Ingle , a Protestant tobacco grower, both of whom captured parts of Maryland and plundered other parts.
   b. The charter was almost revoked after Ingle returned to England in 1647.
   c. Under a Protestant deputy governor, William Stone , Maryland passed an Act of Toleration in Apr 1649, one of the first such acts to grant religious freedom in the colonies, although it did not protect Jews or Athiests, but tolerated Trinitarians.
   d. A Roman Catholic royalist governor, Thomas Greene , recognized Charles II's claim to the throne and caused an investigation of the colony in England.
   e. Parliamentary commissioners, including Claiborne, designated William Fuller as governor who called an Assembly in 1654, which repudiated the proprietor's authority in the colony and also revoked the Act of Toleration, denying Catholics the protection of law.
   f. A brief civil war in 1655 was won by the Puritans who imprisoned Stone.
   
6. Philip Calvert regained his place as proprietor in Nov 1660 and was succeeded by Charles Calvert who became 3d Lord Baltimore in 1675.
   
7. Increasing tension (1661-81) between the proprietary regime and the anti-proprietary party, led by Josias Fendall ousted as governor when the Calverts returned to power
   a. The proprietors became unpopular when the price of tobacco dropped.
   b. Problems intensified after voting restrictions were limited to freeholders (Dec 1670), Indian raids increased, nepotism rose, and anti-Catholic sentiment grew.
   c. A short-lived rebellion was crushed in Sept 1676 with the leaders hanged.
   d. A second rebellion (Apr 1681) was unsuccessful before Fendall was banished.
   
8. Revolution of 1689 in Maryland (1684-95)
   a. Lord Baltimore returned to England in May 1684 to settle boundary disputes with Virginia and with Penn's colony to the north and to answer charges that he favored Roman Catholics and interfered with royal customs collectors.
   (1) His nephew, George Talbot , acting governor in his absence, was accused of murdering a collector (1684), a charge of which Lord Baltimore was also questioned.
   (2) Lord Baltimore was fined for obstructing the collectors, and Talbot was sentenced to death before the king banished him for five years in 1686.
   b. During Lord Baltimore's absense, anti-proprietary sentiment grew amidst rumors that the colony would be turned over to Catholics, and was aided by a struggle between the assembly and Baltimore's new appointment, William Joseph .
   c. After the accession of William and Mary and the declaration of war with France in May 1689, John Coode led a Mar against St. Mary's and forced Joseph and his lieutenants to surrender.
   
9. Maryland as Royal Colony
   a. The new assembly petitioned the crown to take over the colony and elected Nehemiah Blakiston as president.
   b. The Lords of Trade made Maryland a royal colony in 1691 and appointed Sir Lionel Copley as first royal governor.
   c. The Church of England was established in Maryland (1692).
   d. Its capital was moved from St. Mary, a catholic city, to the Protestant city of Annapolis, 1695
   e. Benedict Leonard Calvert converted to Anglicanism (1713), rearing his children as Protestants.
   f. The proprietorship was returned in 1715 to his son Charles Calvert , as 4th Lord Baltimore, when the charter of 1632 was restored.
   

C. Developmental Patterns in Maryland (similar to Virginia)


1. Prosperity was connected to tobacco farming.
   
2. Initially a white indentured labor force was brought in to work the plantations.
   
3. In the late 1600s, large numbers of lifetime black servants began to flood the colony
   

IV. Founding of Plymouth Bay
A. Early Activities of the Plymouth Company

1. The first company expedition (1606) was captured by the Spanish in the West Indies.
   
2. Sir John Popham led a second expedition, exploring the coast of Maine to the South.
   
3. Sir Ferdinando Gorges in 1607 sent the Gift of God under George Popham and the Mary and John under Raleigh Gilbert who landed in Maine, where a fort was erected.
   
4. The initial colony failed because of idleness and factionalism.
   
5. Trading and fishing activities were sent to the Maine coast by Sir John Popham (son) as well as the Dutch, French and Spaniards.
   
6. John Smith explored the New England coast (1614) for the company, finding many possible settlement areas on which he published A Description of New England , which gave the region its name.
   
7. Richard Vines, after a winter at the mouth of the Saco, reported on the rich cod fishing which revived the interests of the Plymouth Company.
   
8. Although the Plymouth company received a charter from James I in 1620, a new charter granted to the Council for New England all land between 40 and 48 degrees North and from "sea to sea."
   

B. Founding of Plymouth Rock

1. James I required all Englishmen to attend the services of the Anglican Church, permitting no any other church services to be held in England.
   
2. Some Separatists migrated to the Netherlands where they were granted limited asylum by the Dutch Calvinists beginning in 1607.
   
3. Some English Separatist immigrants, who had settled in Leyden in 1609, became concerned after ten years in Holland that their children were losing contact with English culture, could not join local Dutch guilds, and would be subject to the Inquisition once a 12-year Spanish and Dutch truce expired in 1621, and began negotiations with the VA Company to emigrate to company lands in the New World.
   
4. Leyden group leaders included their pastor John Robinson andWilliam Brewster (1567-1644).
   
5. They secured a patent from the Virginia Company in 1619 to settle within company borders in the name of an English clergyman, John Wyncop, and also had gained an important concession from James I, that he would not interfere with their religious practices -- observance of Anglicanism would not be enforced in their colonies.
   
6. After rejecting a Dutch offer, they combined with Thomas Weston, an ironmonger, and John Pierce, a clothmaker and set up three groups in 1620, which controlled all capital and profits for seven years after which it would be divided proportionately:
   a. 70 adventurers in England at 10 pounds per share;
   b. Adventurer-planters received 2 shares per 10 pound consideration for their settling;
   c. Planters who received one share each for their labor.
   
7. Pilgrim Voyage (22 July-9 Nov 1620)
   a. Thirty Pilgrims from Leyden sailed to London and boarded the Mayflower as part of 101 persons plus crew and officers.
   b. CPT Miles Standish (c.1584-1656), a non-Pilgrim, was hired as military leader.
   c. Because some doubted the legality of their patent, they (may have deliberately) landed outside of the Virginia Company's boundaries.
   d. After several non-pilgrim passengers asserted that no one had authority over them, Pilgrim leaders drafted the Mayflower Compact , a social contract, setting up a "civil body politic" to frame "just and equal laws," signed by 41 adults, not all of whom were pilgrims (21 Nov 1620).
   

C. Plymouth Colony 1620-24


1. Plymouth was chosen as the sight of the colony on 25 Dec and a deacon, John Carver (c.1576-1621) served as the first governor through the mild first winter
   
2. Weakened from the journey, half the Pilgrims died within four months of landing.
   
3. The survivors in the spring of 1621 owe their lives to Squanto and Samoset, two Indians who taught the Pilgrims how to grow corn and also helped to initially establish good relations with local Indian tribes, although with the firearms the Pilgrims were able to become the dominant partner.
   
4. This provided the roots for the traditional Thanksgiving celebration, first celebrated after the harvest of 1621 as a way of cementing their relationship with the Indians, a three-day event with some 90 men present.
   
5. Relations with the Indians worsened after news of the Virginia massacre of 1622 forcing the Pilgrims to militarize their colony, under the leadership of Miles Standish .
   
6. By imposing stern discipline the Pilgrims managed to become agriculturally self-sufficient, but after seven years the Pilgrims were heavily in debt that they faced fifteen more years of labor to free themselves.
   a. Fishing failed to be profitable for them, but they learned to trade their corn surpluses with the Indians of Maine in exchange for furs.
   b. The colony prospered by fur trading and by preparing lumber for shipment to England.
   c. The settlement finally freed itself from its debts and grew to several hundred, living in present day Massachusetts
   
7. William Bradford , second governor who held the post except for 5 years until his death in 1656, kept a journal of colony activities until 1651 which was published as Of Plymouth Plantations .
   8. The colony received a second patent in June 1621 from the Council for New England, which gave title to land jointly for adventurers and planters (100 acres per person transported and 1,500 acres for public use) at an annual rent of 2 shillings per 100 acres, although the exact boundaries of the colony were undefined.
   9. The colony abandoned its communal economy in 1623.
   
8. Additional attempts by others to found colonies in the same area failed either because of mismanagement, or they were driven away because of "uninhibited lifestyles."
   

D. Plymouth Colony 1625-91


1. Pilgrims bought out the London investors and assumed all debts (15 Nov 1626).
   
2. The buy-out was underwritten by eight colonists who were granted a trade monopoly and given a tax of corn and tobacco per shareholder until the debt was paid.
   
3. This groups established two trading posts near Plymouth.
   
4. In Jan 1630 a new Plymouth patent was granted by the Council for New England which defined the colonies's boundaries to include the trading post lands.
   
5. A code, Great Fundamentals , drawn up in 1636, established a single house General Court (composed of two deputies from each town elected by the freemen), a Governor and his assistants.
   
6. Although the colony held a land grant from the Council for New England, it had no charter from the government, and in 1691 was absorbed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony, with a population of 7,000
   

Significance of the Pilgrims
They helped inspire the American vision of sturdy, self-reliant, God-fearing folk crossing the Atlantic to govern themselves freely.
They also foreshadowed the methods that later generations would use to gain mastery over the Indians -- firearms.
F. Additional Colonies in Present-day Maine and New Hampshire


1. John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges in Aug 1622 received a patent from the Council for New England to all lands between the Merrimack and Kennebec Rivers.
   
2. David Thomson (1622), and Christopher Levett (1623) received a grant of 6,000 acres
   
3. John Oldham and Richard Vines settled on the Southside of the Saco River in 1623-24.
   
4. Mason and Gorges divided their joint northern holdings in 1629 after which they were given trading rights to an extended area as far as Lake Champlain and the St. Lawrence
   
5. In 1631 Gorges received a grant of 24,000 acres on the Agamenticus (York) River where he concentrated his efforts.
   

V. Establishment of Massachusetts Bay Colony
A. Background of the Massachusetts Colony

1. By 1600 Puritans held considerable influence in the Church of England and when the economy grew worse, many Puritans became interested in colonizing New England.
   a. Puritans wanted to eliminate the office of bishop but James I bitterly opposed their efforts, believing the monarch's power to name bishops greatly strengthened his power because bishops comprised about a quarter of the House of Lords, the upper chamber of Parliament which at that time had strong voice in enacting laws.
   (1) Bishops also controlled the clergy and could silence ministers whose sermons were critical of government policies.
   (2) James I consequently made it clear that he saw Puritan attacks on bishops as a direct threat to himself when he snapped "No bishop, no king."
   b. After Charles I came to the throne in 1625, Anglican authorities undertook a systematic campaign to eliminate Puritan influence in the church.
   (1) Bishops insisted that services be conducted according to the Book of Common Prayer which prescribed rituals similar to Catholic practices
   (a) They dismissed Puritan ministers who refused to perform High Church rites
   (b) Church courts also judged cases involving religious laws and harassed Puritan laity with fines or excommunication .
   (c) Also a deep recession plagued England during the Thirty Years War that prevented Germany from buying English cloth after 1618.
   (2) This further encouraged Puritans to look for opportunities away from England's constricting environment.
   
2. An earlier colony of the Dorchester Company planted a settlement near present-day Gloucester in 1624-26 which failed, although almost forty settlers remained at a trading post near present-day Salem.
   3. New England Company was established 19 Mar 1628 by the Rev. John White , a member of the Dorchester Company
   a. The company received a patent to land extending three miles north of the Merrimack river to three miles south to the Charles river.
   b. Its 90 members, nearly all Puritan, included six from the old Dorchester group.
   
3. John Endecott (1589-1655) arrived with colonists in Sept 1628, serving as the colony's first governor until 1630.
   5. Massachusetts Bay Company (Mar 1629) with a royal charter replaced it.
   a. The charter, however, failed to specify where its annual meeting would be held.
   b. The government was transfered to New England as a result of this oversight.
   c. The company was transformed into a self-governing commonwealth.
   d. The Salem church was established along separatist lines and two freemen were expelled when they insisted on conforming to the Anglican ritual.
   
4. Cambridge Agreement 1629, prepared by 12 members of the Massachusetts Bay Company who ratified it in Aug, transfered the charter and the government of the company to the new world.
   
5. The Puritan position decreased after William Laud became Bishop of London in 1628 and Charles I dissolved Parliament in Mar 1629.
   8. Not until 1630 however did a large scale migration begin, building communities based on religious ideals, believing they could found America's first Utopian society.
   

B. Puritan Beliefs

1. The purpose of civil law was to enforce to enforce God's laws.
   
2. The concept of salvation involved the doctrine of election, whereby God selected or preordained those who would be saved -- saints versus sinners.
   
3. Nothing that a person did would influence God's choice.
   
4. Certain signs were available to help the individual determine if he was among the elect.
   a. If things were going well for you, this could be a sign that you were elected.
   b. Although you could not earn salvation through good works, works might be a sign of election
   
5. Puritan Practices
   a. Each community had its own church, which was an individual unit run by the members of each congregation, who elected their own minster.
   b. Ministers worked together informally, enforcing certain beliefs and practices through social pressure.
   c. Ministers could not hold public office, but advised public officials.
   

C. New England Way


1. It set very high standards for identifying the "elect"
   
2. They normally only accepted those who correctly professed their faith, repented of their sins and who lived free of scandal.
   
3. To become a candidate for membership, one had to undergo a soul-baring examination in front of the congregation and describe their spiritual life and conversion experience
   a. This strict soul-searching was criticized as an unnecessary barrier to membership esp because it intimidated shy and humble saints who felt awkward about neighbors voting on their state of grace.
   b. Many people from New England refused to give public confessions of grace before the church
   c. Some were denied membership such as a women, so overcome by nervousness that they began sobbing uncontrollably until the congregation relented.
   d. This embarrassing spectacle of having to openly share your spiritual feelings before your neighbors was the single most criticize part of the New England Way .
   (1) New England Way insisted on literacy so everyone could read the Bible to experience God's quickening grace.
   (2) Parents were responsible for seeing that their children were not ignorant of the Scriptures and even sent elders to check whether children were instructed in the elements of religion.
   (3) Clergymen were responsible for leading saints to repentance and stimulating piety.
   (a) Ministers were to stir the heart and faith of his congregation with moving sermons that could be understood by laymen.
   (b) Clergy were to be highly educated and Harvard College was founded in 1636.
   (4) This insistence on high standards led Oxford University in England to recognize Harvard degrees as equivalent to its won by 1648, so the New England Way would not falter due to a lack of properly trained clergy.
   New England Way of Winthrop and Cotton helped to enforce religious conformity
   a. Leaders believed that without this conformity and order, divisiveness among Puritans over questions such as church-state relationship , church membership, economic individualism and women's role could lead to colonial splintering, a failure in God's eyes.
   b. Despite the leaders efforts for conformity, some Puritans had radical ideas and insisted on expressing them.
   

D. Early Colonization 1630-40


1. Four ships arrived in Mar 1630 with the newly elected governor John Winthrop , and were followed by seven more within one month.
   a. Winthrop viewed the colony as a sacred experiment, a city upon a hill which would serve as a lighthouse to humanity -- an agreement with God to build a model holy society for the rest of mankind to observe.
   b. Winthrop was governor for nineteen years.
   
2. The population settled along the Massachusetts coast north of Plymouth.
   
3. JohnSmith's pamphlet inspired discontented English Puritans to migrate in droves to what they viewed as a haven.
   4. Increased difficulties for Puritans in England after Laud was elevated to the primacy, and economic troubles produced an influx of immigrants into the colony (Great Migration ) beginning in 1633.
   a. Within one decade, 20,000 settlers emigrated to New England.
   b. They included John Cotton (1584-1652) and Thomas Hooker (1586-1647).
   
4. The colony prospered with an economy built on fishing, shipbuilding, and fur trading.
   6. The Civil Government was limited initially to share holders but was later enlarged to include freemen or adult males who were members of the Puritan or Congregational Church (about 2/5 of the male population), which violated their charter.
   a. The freemen of each town elected deputies to the 18-member General Court.
   b. The General Court elected the Governor and Deputy Governor.
   c. Deputies and assistants sat together in a single house until 1644 when it evolved into a bicameral government (Court of Assistants and House of Deputies).
   

E. Troubles in Paradise


1. Roger Williams Arrives
   a. Having arrived in 1631, Williams emerged as pastor of the Salem church
   b. After he attacked the validy of the charter, questioned the right of civil authorities to legislated in matters of conscience, and urged the Salem church to separate from the rest and all Puritan churches to separate from the Church of England, the General Court refused to seat deputies from Salem until they repudiated Williams.
   c. Although some Puritans agreed that the church should be free of state control because they opposed theocracy (govt. run by clergy), they disagreed with Williams in that they believed that a Holy Commonwealth required cooperation and interaction between church and state.
   (1) Williams however took a different route arguing that civil government should remain absolutely uninvolved with religious matters whether it concern blasphemy, failure to pay tithes, refusal to attend worship, or swearing oaths on the Bible in court.
   (2) Williams had derived his stance from the Anabaptist tradition which believed that the elect must limit their association with society's sinners to protect God's church from contamination.
   (3) William opposed any kind of compulsory church service or interference with private religious beliefs, not because he felt that all religious beliefs deserved equal respect but because he feared that the state would eventually corrupt the saints.
   (4) Williams believed that the true purpose of founding Massachusetts Bay was to protect true religion and prevent heresy.
   (5) True to William's ideals, Rhode Island became the only New England colony to practice religious toleration and although it grew slowly, the colony's four towns had eight hundred settlers by 1650
   d. Political authorities declared Williams to be a subversive and the General Court banished him in Sept 1635 but let him stay through the winter.
   (1) John Winthrop advised his friend to go south with four companions to a place they called Providence , which he purchased from the Narragansett Indians.
   (2) Williams fled the colony in Jan 1636 and wintered among the Indians.
   (3) He attempted to settle in Plymouth before purchasing land from local Indians near present Providence which he founded in June 1636.
   (4) Other dissenters to the New England Way drifted to settlements near Providence which eventually came to be known as Rhode Island Colony.
   e. His emphasis on the purity of the church and freedom from coercion in matters of faith laid the foundation for the US doctrine -- separation of church and state .
   
2. Attempts to revoke the Charter
   a. Thomas Morton, having been banished from the colony, combined with Gorges to have the Massachusetts Bay Company Charter revoked.
   (1) Before the Privy Council in 1633, a committee (Lords Commissioners for the Plantations in General or the Laud Commission ) in May 1635 ordered its recall because it had been questionably obtained and had exceeded its authority.
   (2) Gorges was to notify the Massachusetts company officials but could not do so.
   b. Winthrop ignored the Privy Council order (Apr 1638), but the outbreak of war with Scotland prevented the Crown from further actions at that time.
   
3. Trial of Anne Hutchinson (1591-1643) -- for views of Antinomianism
   a. Hutchinson was the second major challenge to the New England Way.
   b. She arrived in Massachusetts Bay in 1634 with her husband and family.
   c. Sir Henry Vane, elected Governor in May 1636 and a member of the Boston congregation, soon came under her influence, as well as two other ministers, John Cotton and John Wheelwright.
   d. Her beliefs
   (1) Her ideas derived from the theology of the respected John Cotton, yet Cotton insisted that true congregationalism required saints to be entirely free of religious or political control by anyone who had not undergone a conversion experience (born again).
   (2) Cotton extended that to include even those in authority who led upright, blameless lives insisting that they had to be reborn spiritually.
   (3) Hutchinson extended Cotton's argument to state that saints must be free from interference by the nonelect into an attack on the authority of the clergy.
   (a) Because she was dissatisfied with her minister, she charged that he was not of the elect and that saints could ignore his views if they believed he lacked saving grace.
   (b) She eventually declared that all the colony's ministers were not saved except John Cotton and her brother-in-law, John Wheelwright and so the ministers lacked any authority over those like herself, who were really saved.
   e. Further problems with her beliefs
   (1) She criticized the Puritan emphasis on the covenant of works , stressing the covenant of grace and magnified the idea of personal revelation which minimized the role of the orthodox clergy.
   (a) She began to hold meetings in her home following Sunday church services in which the sermons of the pastor, John Cotton, were further discussed.
   (b) She believed that because one could not earn salvation by good works, a holy life of good works were not a sign that one was elected, and the truly elect need not bother to obey the law, undercutting the moral endeavor of the community
   (c) As long as these were private discussions in her home, little was said, but when men began to attend, a gender problem arose, because the Bible said that "women should not teach men."
   (2) Hutchinson cast doubt on the spiritual state of all the colony's clergy and thus denied them the right to judge the saints.
   (1) She undermined the clergy's moral authority to even interpret and teach Scripture.
   (2) Her critics stated that her views would incite people to believe that they were accountable to no one but themselves.
   (3) She and her followers were called Antinomians -- opponents of the rule of law .
   (4) Because Hutchinson was a woman, she was seen as an especially dangerous foe.
   f. By 1636, Massachusetts Bay split into two camps -- her critics and supporters
   (1) Supporters included merchants like her husband who had come to dislike the government restrictions on their businesses.
   (2) Young men also joined Hutchinson because they did not like the chafing they had to endure from the elders
   (3) Many women protested their second class status in church affairs.
   g. Banishment of Hutchinson
   (1) When the Rev John Wheeler (1592-1679) denounced the doctrine of works in a sermon in Boston in Jan 1637, he was tried for sedition and contempt, and convicted.
   (2) In the next election (May 1637), Winthrop defeated Vane, a Hutchinson supporter who returned to England but a third supporter, John Cotton , recanted.
   (3) To define orthodox Puritan doctrine, a synod of 25 ministers convened in Aug at Newton Massachusetts, away from pro-Hutchinson Boston.
   (4) The General Court in Nov banished Wheelwright and ordered Anne Hutchinson to stand trial for sedition and contempt for which she was convicted and sentenced to be banished.
   (5) Governor Winthrop brought Hutchinson to trial for heresy but she held her own at court because of her excellent understanding of Scripture, making her superior to her interrogators.
   (a) Winthrop described her as haughty and fierce, a nimble wit and active spirit.
   (b) Since most Christians and orthodox Puritans believed God had ceased to speak to individuals through direct revelation since New Testament times, Hutchinson failed when she claimed to have communicated directly with the Holy Spirit.
   i) One only knows on the basis of an inner vision or inner illumination from God.
   ii) She claimed that not only was she saved but that she knew who was also saved.
   iii) When she revealed that only three ministers were saved and fit to serve, she undermined the authority of the colony.
   iv) This developed into a struggle between Boston and the outlying areas.
   (6) Following her excommunication in Mar 1638, she and her family along with other antinomians went to Rhode Island but soon joined other Boston exiles in establishing Pocasset (Portsmouth) in Mar.
   (7) After her husband died she moved to New Netherlands where in 1643 she was killed by local Indians
   (8) She settled at Long Island after her husband died in 1642.
   (9) After she with most of her family and many others were massacred in 1643 by Indians in the vicinity of Eastchester, Governor Winthrop wrote that her death was "a special manifestation of divine justice."
   h. After the Antinomian defeat, new restrictions were placed on women independence and equality and women were now increasingly prohibited from assuming public religious roles.
   
4. Self Interest becomes the primary threat to Winthrop's city upon a hill
   a. Some Puritans came to the New World dedicated to stability, self discipline, mutual obligation and social reciprocity but many came to find prosperity and social mobility
   (1) This group consisted primarily of merchants who fueled the economy but their lifestyles did not conform to traditional New England values.
   (2) Merchants were uneasy in a religious utopia that equated financial shrewdness with greed
   (3) They resisted government church leaders trying to regulate prices to prevent chronic suffering
   b. Puritan leaders feared a "market economy" would strangle the spirit of community and create harsh new world of frantic competition.
   

VI. Offshoots from Massachusetts 1631-60
A. Connecticut

1. Edward Winslow explored the Connecticut Valley (Fall 1632) into Dutch territory (New Amsterdam) and built a fort and trading post near present-day Hartford (1633).
   
2. John Oldham of the Bay Colony led a party to winter at present-day Wethersfield in 1634-35 while LT. William Holmes , commissioned by Winthrop, established a trading post above Hartford at Windsor on land claimed by Plymouth.
   
3. Several colonists from the Massachusetts seacoast towns moved to Windsor in the spring of 1635 and again in Oct.
   
4. In July 1635, a group headed by Lord Saye and Sele, claimed rights to the region on the basis of a patent from the Council for New England, and authorized John Winthrop the Younger (1606-76) to take control at the mouth of the Connecticut River.
   a. Winthrop's authority was accepted by the settlers before Mar 1636.
   b. Massachusetts General Court's plan of government gave authority to the inhabitants.
   
5. Rev. Thomas Hooker and several from Newton reached Hartford (May 1636).
   a. His democratic views were expressed in a sermon in May 1638 in which he declared that authority rested upon the free consent of the "people."
   b. His views were shared by John Haynes and Roger Ludlow who founded Fairfield and Stratford in 1638.
   
6. The frame of government known as the Fundamental Orders was adopted by Hartford, Windsor and Wethersfield (Jan 1639).
   a. Springfield under William Pynchon refused to join and after 1649 regularly sent deputies to the Massachusetts General Court.
   b. Freemen, or "admitted inhabitants" (Trinitarian male householders) who were approved by the General Court or by one or more of the magistrates, selected the magistrates and the Governor from an approved Congregation.
   c. Voting in town affairs was open to "admitted inhabitants" who after 1657 were in possession of an estate valued at thirty pounds.
   
7. The franchise was as restrictive as the Massachusetts Bay Colony and was composed of 15 towns by 1662 before New Haven was absorbed into it.
   

B. Rhode Island (1636-56)

1. Roger Williams established Rhode Island on the basis of an Indian deed.
   
2. Dissenters from other colonies flocked to Providence and soon established other towns.
   a. William Coddington from Boston in Apr 1638 with Anne Hutchinson founded Pocasset or Portsmouth.
   b. Coddington split from Hutchinson and established Newport in May 1639.
   c. Warwick was founded by Samuel Gorton in 1643.
   
3. Williams' colony required no oaths regarding one's religious beliefs, no compulsory attendance in worship services, and no taxes for a state church, and granted full religious freedom, even to Jews
   
4. Williams established the first Baptist church in the English colonies, but died as a Quaker.
   
5. Facing hostility from the New England Confederacy, Williams returned to England via New Amsterdam in Mar 1643 to obtain a charter, which was granted in Mar 1644.
   
6. The charter allowed a general assembly, composed of freemen from four towns.
   a. It convened at Portsmouth in May 1647 to draft a constitutional structure.
   b. The constitution gave freedom of conscience, separated church from state, provided for town referenda on laws passed by the Assembly, and gave towns the same right as the Assembly to initiate laws.
   
7. Anti-unionist William Coddington sought a separate charter for the island of Aquidneck (Mar 1651), but it was not revoked by the council of State (Oct 1652), after which Coddington accepted the authority of Providence Plantations (Mar 1656).
   

C. New Haven (1637-42)


1. Rev. John Davenport (1597-1670). a friend of John Cotton, arrived in Boston (June 1636) with several others including Theophilus Eaton (c.1590-1658) before establishing a colony and trading post at Quinnipiac or New Haven.
   
2. A town established on land purchased from the Indians was laid out on a modified grid pattern and a government was established, restricting the franchise to church members.
   
3. Stamford was established in 1641 and in 1643 the independent settlements of Guilford and Milford joined the New Haven colony.
   
4. A General Court was established, comprised of two deputies from the four towns, which adopted in Nov 1643 a Frame of Government, and made the Mosaic law the basis of its legal system, but no provision was made for trial by jury.
   

D. New Hampshire (1638-43)


1. Fishing and trading activities north of Boston resulted in new communities.
   a. John Wheelwright , banished from Massachusetts (Apr 1638), established the town of Exeter.
   b. Settlers signed the Exeter Compact , similar to Mayflower Compact, in July 1639
   
2. Portsmouth and Dover conceded the authority of Massachusetts in 1641 followed by Hampton in 1642 and Exeter in 1643.
   
3. Wheelwright withdrew to Maine rather than submit to Massachusetts.
   

E. Maine (1640-51)


1. Although Gorges tried to govern Maine through his cousin, Thomas Gorges, and through a provincial court, established at York in June 1640, Massachusetts continued its northward expansion.
   
2. Although the Maine government appealed to Parliament in 1651, the Massachusetts General Court claimed that Maine was included within the boundaries of their colony.
   
3. Several communities were annexed in 1652 and others capitulated to Massachusetts.
   

F. Massachusetts as an Independent Commonwealth (1641-60)


1. The General Court in Dec 1641 a code, the Body of Liberties , drawn up by Nathaniel Ward , over one porposed by John Cotton (published in England as An Abstract of the Lawes of New England (1641).
   
2. The Body of Liberties based its criminal code on the Pentateuch.
   
3. In Nov 1646, Robert Child along with others complained that the Bay Colony discriminated against non-Puritans, in violation of the laws of England.
   
4. The General Court adopted in 1648 a more extensive code which was influential throughout the northern colonies, except for Rhode Island whose code of 1647 adhered to English common law.
   
5. The General Court began to mint its own coins in June 1652 (down to 1684) and in defiance of Parliament, in Oct 1652, declared itself an independent commonwealth.
   

G. New England Society -- Government Structure, Community Life, Occupations, Family Life


1. To preserve the New England Way, Puritans developed religious institutions far more democratic than those in England.
   a. Massachusetts Bay company gave the right of electing the governor and his executive council to all male saints and in 1634 each town gained the option of sending two delegates to General Court
   b. In 1634 a bicameral or two-chamber lawmaking body was established when the town's deputies separated from the Governors council to form the House of Representatives.
   c. Massachusetts did not require voters or officeholders to own property but bestowed full citizenship on every adult male accepted as a saint.
   d. By 1641 about 55% of the colony's 2300 men could vote, while England's property requirements permitted only about 30% could vote.
   e. New England legislatures established a town by awarding a grant of land to several dozen heads of families who enjoyed almost unlimited freedom to lay out the settlement, organize its church, distribute land among themselves, set local tax rates, and make local laws.
   f. Each town then determined its own qualifications for voting and holding office in the town meeting yet custom held that all male taxpayers including non saints be allowed to participate.
   g. The meeting could exclude anyone from settling in the town, or it could grant the right of sharing in any future land distributions to newcomers.
   
2. Community Life in New England
   a. The founders of a town usually granted each family a one-acre house lot (enough for a vegetable garden) within one-half-mile of the meetinghouse.
   b. A town meeting gave each household strips of land or small fields farther out for its crops and livestock.
   (1) Some individuals owned several parcels of land in different location and so gained the right to graze a few extra animals on the town commons.
   (2) By granting families no more land than they needed to support themselves, towns were inherently created to maintain a tight cluster for community life (tending more toward an urban rather than rural atmosphere).
   (3) By separating a family's home from its farm acreage, forcing all residents to live within a mile or one another, created a physical setting conducive to traditional reciprocity.
   (a) In England however this mode of land division was becoming inefficient as farmers tried to produce a greater surplus for sale by consolidating landholdings.
   (b) By 1600 English agriculturalists preferred scattered farms away from village centers.
   (4) New England's compact system of settlement forced people to interact with each other and created an atmosphere of mutual watchfulness that promoted godly order.
   (a) New Englanders showed little disposition to settle as individuals upon separate farms.
   (b) Long established custom, along with the desirability of having a church easily accessible and the need to protect against hostile Indians, kept settlers together in villages.
   (5) Consequently the development of a New England town came to be the social and economic unit on which all New England life tended to center.
   (a) The town as a natural self-governing political unit and practice among Puritans with respect to church government allowed each congregation to choose its minister, deacons and elders, and tithing men.
   (b) Even in matters of doctrine, the decision of the congregation was final.
   (c) In secular government matters, the same ideas of democracy prevailed as matters of local importance were brought before town meetings to which usually all church members were entitled to come.
   (d) Levying of taxes, land distribution, establishment of schools, passing local ordinances were all brought before the town meeting.
   (e) The town was also the unit from which members or representatives were chosen to the lower house of the colonial legislature.
   
3. Occupations
   a. New England's climate and topography prevented the development of staple money crops for import to England (like tobacco, rice and indigo as in the South).
   b. Fields in New England were cleared of timber and stones, stones being used extensively for the construction of stone walls to serve as fences, yet crops of many kinds were planted.
   c. Normally each family had land of their own because it was plentiful and usually each farmer tilled his own land.
   d. Because labor was scarce, landholdings tended to be no more than one man could work.
   e. Because most New Englanders lacked money with which to buy manufactured goods from Europe, farmers tended to fashion for themselves the tools they used, they shoes the family wore, the furniture they needed and the women spun wool or flax in yarn, wove cloth, and made the clothes the family wore
   f. The shortage of money caused New Englanders to develop habits of thrift and frugality.
   g. Agriculture was supplemented by fishing and commerce, because New England coasts were rich in fish, and fishing led to commerce because they were able to export vast amounts to the West Indies and in Southern Europe, coming to be known as "Yankee traders"
   (1) Commerce expanded into other commodities (molasses, sugar, ginger, lumber and furs).
   (2) As slaves were brought to the West Indies they were exchanged for molasses, which was brought to New England to make more rum, to acquire more slaves, to exchange for more molasses and so on.
   (3) New Englanders developed a taste for rum which became the standard drink of New England.
   (4) Shipbuilding paralleled fishing and commerce as skillful craftsmen built strong ships to withstand the elements and smuggling developed as the Navigation Acts tightened.
   
4. Puritan Family Life
   a. Puritan society rested upon the little commonwealth -- nuclear family, not the individual.
   b. "Well-ordered families," declared Cotton Mather in 1699, "naturally produce a Good Order."
   c. A proper Puritan family of wife, children and servants dutifully obeyed the husband.
   (1) Winthrop said a 'true wife" thought of herself "in subjection to her husband's authority"
   (2) Matrimony was defined as a contract subject to state regulation rather than a religious sacrament and so were married by justices of the peace, not ministers.
   (a) Marriage could be dissolved by the courts for desertion, bigamy, adultery or physical cruelty
   (b) Divorce was allowed only as a last extreme measure, as a remedy fit only for extremely wronged spouses.
   (3) English Common Law did not extend property rights to a wife independent of her husband unless he consented to a prenuptial agreement giving her control over any property she already owned.
   (4) Only if a husband died heirless or in his will awarded his widow full control could she claim rights over household property, yet she normally held a legal lifetime use of one third of the estate for her support.
   (a) A typical male in England who reached age 18 could expect to die at age 53 and females who reached 18 lived to about 45
   (b) A typical family had five children of who three grew to adulthood.
   (c) One in six never married
   (d) Most women who married were already orphans by the time of their wedding day.
   (5) New England settlers did better because of a more disease free environment
   (a) They received a better diet and less disease and infection
   (b) New Englanders lived long and raised large families, having a life expectancy of 65 for men and women lived nearly that long
   (d) More than 80% of all infants survived long enough to get married
   (d) Large families helped supply a labor force on the homesteads.
   (e) Children depended on parents to provide enough acreage to get started.
   (f) Young men often stayed at home and postponed marriage until receiving their own land.
   (g) Average family raised three to four boys to adulthood and could depend on thirty to forty years of work if their sons delayed marriage until age 26.
   (6) Because of short growing seasons, rocky soil salted with gravel and an inefficient system of land distribution, farmers were forcedto cultivate widely scattered strips which prevented them from becoming wealthy yet they fed large families and stayed just ahead of their debts.
   (a) Because New England was not suited for farming, some New Englanders turned to lumbering, fishing, fur trading, and rum distilling into major industries which employed much seasonal labor
   (b) It also caused the New England economy to be much more diversified and its inhabitants to grow more worldly (secular).
   (c) This shift toward secularism caused fewer and fewer of the children to emerge as saints.
   

H. Demise of the Puritan Mission -- Changes within Massachusetts Society


1. Following the capture of Parliament by Puritans in 1640, the Great Migration subsided.
   a. The number of Puritan church members dwindled to a minority.
   b. Second and Third generation settlers decreasedthe number of church members per capita
   
2. As England fell into civil war chaos in 1642 over Charles I 's efforts to impose taxes without Parliamentary consent, Puritans gained control of the government with the Lord High Protector Oliver Cromwell.
   
3. After Cromwell's death, the Stuart restoration of Charles II doomed Puritanism in England.
   a. High Church Anglicans ruthlessly expelled Puritan ministers from their parishes.
   b. Anglican harsh laws forbade Separatists from establishing churches and schools.
   c. One English saint believed "God has spit in our face."
   d. Restoration of the Anglican Monarchy left American Puritans without a mission
   
4. American Puritans hoped their example would shame England into reforming its church, but having conquered the wilderness and built their city upon a hill, New Englanders discovered after 1660 that the eyes of the world were no longer on them, creating an internal crisis in the New England Way, which stemmed from the failure of their children to declare themselves saints
   a. First generation Puritans believed they had a hold contract or covenant with God, which obliged them to establish a scripturally-ordained church, preserved by their children.
   b. In return they believed God would prosper them and shield them from corruption.
   c. Yet few second-generation Puritans were willing to join the elect by required conversion before their congregation.
   
5. By 1650, less than half the adults in John Winthrop's congregation were saints as very few of the second generation were willing to subject themselves to a grilling before relatives and friends
   a. Most second-generation Puritans had witnessed the ordeal that potential saints suffered such as Sarah Fiske who, for more than a year, had to answer charges of speaking uncharitably about relatives (esp her husband) and was admitted to the Church only after publicly denouncing herself as worse than a toad .
   b. Second-generation Puritans were more passive preferring a more inclusive religious community like the English Puritans.
   (1) In England non-separatist ministers routinely certified adults as members worthy of taking communion after hearing a private conversion relationship with God.
   (2) This entitled their children to be baptized.
   c. Second-generation Puritans also rejected the public conversion-ritual as unnecessary because it created bitterness and division that undermined Christian fellowship.
   d. Half-Way Covenant - 1660s
   (1) A new kind of church membership was created -- First generation Puritans had only baptized babies born to saints and were finding that now their grandchildren were not baptized because second generation Puritans had not gone through the ceremonial public confession to become a saint or full church member
   (2) This created the need to loosen the standards for church membership.
   (3) Half-Way Covenant -- Those whose parents had been members, who agreed with the general beliefs of the church, could have their children baptized, which as half-way church members, allowed them to vote in colony elections, but not partake in communion or vote in church affairs.
   (4) Although this broadened the voting base of the colony, Anglicans complained to the king because they were not permitted to vote yet in Massachusetts.
   e. This signaled the end of the New England Way because it sacrificed purity for community, as most second-generation adults chose to remain in "halfway" status for their entire life and thus the "saints" became a shrinking minority as the third and fourth generation matured.
   (1) There were finally more women in saint status than men, but since women could not vote in church affairs, religious authority stayed in male hands.
   (2) The Puritan Church thus became more secularized and shifted from a first generation focus on collective welfare toward a individualistic , more worldly groups of Americans who demanded less restrictions on their economic behavior.
   (3) Farmers lost their political control to the merchant who now controlled town meetings and eventually outnumbered farmers in officeholdings six to one.
   (4) New England became highly vulnerable to internal conflict between prosperous merchants and its agricultural folk.
   (5) Secularization permeated New England with a major shift in values so that by 1700 they were no longer called Puritans but Yankees because of the growing interest in shrewd business practices and sharp eye for economic opportunity, made them appear as business predators building a thriving international commerce, although most New Englanders maintained strong religious roots and convictions.
   

I. Salem Witch Trials 1691


1. A West Indian slave woman named Tituba taught voodoo (witchcraft) to some Salem New England girls who began to act strangely, casting spells on people, bringing illnesses and destroying property
   
2. After questioning, things got way out of hand as the girls indicted prosperous farm wives and also accused a local minister of being a wizard (male witch).
   
3. The jails overflowed as more people were accused to the extreme
   a. One suspect's four year old daughter spent nine months in heavy chains, believing she was "possessed" (demonized).
   b. A seven-year-old sent her mother to the gallows, and a wife and daughter, facing death testified against her husband.
   
4. Fifty persons saved themselves by "confessing" but twenty who would not disgrace themselves went to their deaths.
   
5. The hysteria continued until some church ministers began to demand evidence to corroborate the accusations after which the indictments subsided.
   

VII. Beginnings of Unification
A. Pequot War (1636-37)

1. Puritan Expansion
   a. As Native Americans continued to die drastically from disease Puritans sought to expand their settlements.
   b. As the Puritans moved further inland they met Indian resistance beginning in 1633 with the Pequot tribe who controlled the trade in furs and wampum with New Netherlands.
   
2. A punitive expedition in Aug 1636, led by John Endecott of Massachusetts, against the Pequots was in reprisal for the murder of a New England trader John Oldham.
   
3. The Pequots in turn made reprisal raids in the Spring.
   4. CPT John Mason of Connecticut destroyed the main Pequot village in May.
   
4. Gov. William Bradford saw it as a good thing as the English praised God for helping to destroy these Indians.
   
5. A fleeing remnant was slaughtered in July near New Haven by a combined force from Plymouth, Massachusetts, and Connecticut.
   
6. Surviving Pequots were taken as slaves and the settlement of Connecticut proceeded unimpeded
   

B. New England Confederation (19 May 1643)

1. Because military action was not well coordinated in the Pequot War, and against the threat of Dutch expansionism, delegates from Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven met in Boston.
   
2. They drew up twelve articles of confederation which was ratified by the four colonies, under the name of the United Colonies of New England.
   a. The territorial integrity of the four colonies was guaranteed.
   b. The government consisted of eight commissioners, two from each colony, chosen annually by their respective general courts.
   c. The commissioners had power to declare offensive and defensive war, the expenses of which would be paid for proportionally by each colony based on the number of male inhabitants between the ages of sixteen and sixty, and also had jurisdiction over interstate quarrels, fugitive servants, fugitives from justice, and Indian affairs.
   d. Six votes were required for a decision.
   e. Annual sessions were held until 1664, after which meetings were held occasionally until the termination of the federation in 1684.
   

C. Treatment of Religious Minorities


1. Maine's government passed an act in Oct 1649 which granted all Christians the right to form churches which were "orthodox in judgement and not scandalous in life."
   
2. In July 1651, Massachusetts heavily fined three Baptists and banished them.
   
3. The first Quakers to arrive in Boston in July-Aug 1656 were imprisoned, brutally treated and expelled, with the approval of Federal Commissioners (Sept 1656).
   
4. The Massachusetts Bay Colony imposed penalties on Quakers entering its colony (Oct 1656), forbade Quaker meetings (May 1658), and imposed the death penalty on Quakers who returned to the colony after being expelled (Oct 1658).
   a. William Robinson and Marmaduke Stevenson were hanged in Oct 1659.
   b. Mary Dyer in June 1660 and William Leddra in Mar 1661 were also hanged.
   
5. Similar laws in Plymouth and New Haven (1657-58) were not as vigorously enforced.
   
6. The persecution of Quakers in the colonies was suspended only after the Restoration (Sept 1661) when a royal order commanded that all Quakers under sentence of death or corporal punishment be returned to England for trial.
   a. Massachusetts allowed its Quakers to leave the colony rather than return them.
   b. The suspended corporal punishment act was revived in Oct 1662.
   

D. Conversion of Indians


1. Rev. John Eliot (1604-90), learned Indian dialects, began to preach to the Indians, and established fourteen colonies of "praying Indians" of over 1000 total.
   
2. His work led to the Society for Propagating the Gospel in New England in London in July 1649 but the work was largely destroyed by King Philip's War in the 1670s.
   

VIII. English Colonies From the Restoration To the Glorious Revolution 1660-89
A. Background

1. After Oliver Cromwell died in 1660, the government temporarily was headed by his son, Richard, but he was no Oliver, and a move was made to restore the monarchy to England.
   
2. Charles II, son of the beheaded Charles I, was crowned king.
   
3. The restoration of the monarchy to England placed the New England colonies in peril.
   a. When the Puritans ruled England, they were sympathetic to the cause of the Bay commonwealth and to the independence of New Haven as a colony.
   b. Gradually, however, as judges and governors were replaced by monarchists and not Puritans, the colonies were converted into Royal colonies.
   

B. Fate of the New England Colonies

1. New England's colonies gradually accepted the ascension of Charles II to the throne: (18 Oct 1660), Connecticut (14 Mar 1661), New Haven (5 June) and Massachusetts (7 Aug).
   
2. Fate of Connecticut and Rhode Island
   a. Connecticut had no charter and Rhode Island's charter of 1644 was no longer legal.
   b. Governor John Winthrop Jr (since 1657) obtained in May 1662 a royal charter for Connecticut, with clearly defined boundaries.
   c. Connecticut's charter now included Providence, but an agreement with Rhode Island limited the eastern boundary of Connecticut to the Pawcatuck River.
   d. The Charter granted to Rhode Island in July 1663 guaranteed religious freedom regardless of "differences of opinion in matters of religion."
   
3. Fate of New Haven
   a. In accordance with the Charter of 1662, Connecticut demanded its incorporation, but New Haven's freemen voted to maintain independence in Nov 1662.
   b. Stamford, Guilford and part of Milford decided to join Connecticut in Dec 1664 to avoid coming under the jurisdiction of the Duke of York.
   c. New Haven formally submitted in Jan 1665, although some colonists went to Neward in East Jersey, rather than yield.
   
4. Establishment of the King's Commissioners
   a. The crown sent four commissioners to New England to enlist aid in the war against the Dutch, investigate the colonial governments, settle all boundary disputes between the colonies, and secure enforcement of the Navigation Acts.
   b. Four requirments were placed on the colonists:
   (1) all householders must swear an oath of allegiance to the crown;
   (2) all men of competent estates must be freemen;
   (3) all orthodox believers must be admitted to existing churches or to churches of their own choosing;
   (4) all laws derogatory to the crown must be removed
   C. Plymouth, Connecticut and Rhode Island agreed to comply, but not Massachusetts.
   D. Three commissioners recommended the Bay Colony charter be revoked, but in 1666 Massachusetts refused to send representatives to England to answer charges.
   
5. Fate of Maine
   A. The king's commissioners set up a government in Maine (Oct 1665-May 1668)
   B. A special convention at York recognized Massachusetts' claim of authority in July 1668 and three Maine deputies were seated in the Massachusetts General Court.
   
6. Duke of York's Claim
   A. In June 1674, a patent issued to the Duke of York recognized his title to lands between the Connecticut and Delaware Rivers and the St. Croix and Kennebec in Maine.
   B. Sir Edmund Andros (1637-1714) was designated Governor-General by the Duke of York.
   

C. King Philip's War (1675-76)


1. Background
   A. 5 New England Indian Tribes increasingly were pressed by English expansion.
   B. Philip, who became chief of the Wampanoags, yielded only a token amount of arms (Apr 1671), when Plymouth authorities requested that they be turned in.
   c. This led to charges of conspiracy against the colonists resulted in the murder of the accuser and the trial and execution of three Indians (June 1675).
   
2. Start of Hostilities 1675
   a. Philip's forces attacked a settlement at Swansea in June and colonists from Boston and Plymouth retaliated by attacking the Wampanoag stronghold at Mt. Hope.
   b. Philip, now joined by other Indian tribes attacked the entire southern frontier.
   c. New England Confederation declared war (Sept), assigning each colony a quota of men.
   
3. Narragansett Campaign (2 Nov 1675-Jan 1676)
   a. Josiah Winslow from Plymouth led combined forces against the principal fort of the Narragansetts (in Rhode Island).
   b. Although killing some 300 women and children and most of the old men, most of the warriors had escaped by Jan.
   
4. Indian Counterattack (10 Feb-30 Mar 1676)
   a. Indians, driven by starvation, attacked Lancaster, sacked the town and took hostages, including Mrs. Mary Rowlandson whose True History described her captivity and the starvation.
   b. Attacks on other settlements followed, including Plymouth and Providence.
   
5. Collapse of Indian Resistance (18 May - 28 Aug 1676)
   a. A colonial force of 180 attacked Indians near Deerfield in the Connecticut Valley and destroyed many supplies before being annihilated.
   b. A war of attrition conducted by colonists and friendly Indians gradually stripped the Indians of their offensive power until many were killed or driven into the New Hampshire hills, before many started surrendering in large numbers.
   c. Philip was betrayed, run down, shot and his wife and child were sold into West Indian slavery.
   d. The last sizeable surrender took place 28 Aug.
   
6. War in the North (5 Sept 1675 - 12 Aug 1678)
   a. 80 Maine settlers were killed (Dec 1675) and many others abandoned their settlements when war resumed (Aug 1676).
   b. Indian raids resumed (Spring of 1677).
   c. Sir Edmund Andros successfully negotiated peace terms with Indians (Apr 1678) by which the Indians received one peck of corn annually from each family settling in Maine.
   
7. Cost of the War
   a. One out of every 16 men of military age died.
   b. 90,000 pounds was spent on the war.
   c. 12 New England towns were entirely destroyed and 1/2 of the rest were damaged.
   

D. Problems with Massachusetts


1. Special agent of the Crown, Edward Randolph , arrived in Boston with instructions from the king and he investigated the enforcement of the Navigation Acts.
   
2. His reports charged Massachusetts with failure to enforce the Navigation Acts, with executing English citizens for their religious beliefs, for denying Englishmen the right of appeal to the Privy Council, and for refusing the oath of allegiance.
   
3. The Lords of Trade upheld the title to Maine of the heirs of Sir Fernando Gorges.
   a. Massachusetts bought out the heirs for 1,250 pounds in Mar 1677.
   b. Maine remained part of Massachusetts until 1820.
   
4. Additional negative reports from Randolph led to the Court of Chancery annulling the charter of the Bay Colony in June 1684 (finalized in Oct).
   

E. New Hampshire 1680-86


1. New Hampshire was separated from Massachusetts in Sept 1680 by royal decree and John Cutt served as governor until 1682.
   
2. Edward Cranfield (1682-85) ruled with no assembly after they refused to his revenue bills in 1683.
   
3. Walter Barefoote served briefly until the Dudley Commission arrived.
   
4. New Hampshire was part of the Dominion of New England (1686-89).
   
5. Its royal authority was restored in 1692 after which its only connection to Massachusetts was that each colony had the same governor from 1698-1741.
   

F. Dominion of New England and the Andros Regime (1685-88)


1. Joseph Dudley (1657-1720) in London to protest the loss of the Bay Colony charter was appointed Governor over Massachusetts, Maine and New Hampshire by James II.
   
2. Sir Edmund Andros assumed the governorship in Boston in Dec 1686 over all of New England (except for Connecticut and Rhode Island).
   
3. He organized the Dominion of New England to include NY, NJ and PA for more effective military operations in the event of war with France and for better enforcement of Navigation Acts.
   
4. RI was incorporated (Dec), and CN was taken over (Nov 1687)
   
5. Andros became more unpopular for actions such as these:
   a. He demanded that Anglicans share the Old South Meeting House (Mar 1687) which he then converted into an Anglican church;
   b. He reexamined all land titles which led to an insistence that all regrants pay a quitrent;
   c. He imposed assessments, resisted by an Ipswich town meeting in Aug led by Rev. John Wise (1652-1725), which led to the arrest and fining of some and their disqualification for holding office
   d. He limited town meetings to only one annually (Mar 1688)
   e. He placed the militia under his direct control (Mar 1688)
   
6. Rev. Increase Mather (1639-1723), President of Harvard, sailed to England to make grievances against Andros before the Lords of Trade (Aug 1688).
   

G. Glorious Revolution in New England Jan-July 1689


1. After Andros learned of the landing of William of Orange on English soil (Jan), he returned to Boston but had to seek refuge in a fort to escape an angry mob in Apr.
   
2. A manifesto, mostly by Cotton Mather (1663-1728), was read which justified the uprising because of abuse by the Andros regime, the fear of a French alliance and a rumored Popish plot.
   
3. Andros surrendered and was jailed.
   
4. A "Council for the Safety and the Conservation of the the Peace" was established in Apr and the election of Deputies to a General Court was held in June.
   
5. An Order in Council in July called for the return of Andros and his councilors for a trial.
   

H. Massachusetts Royal Charter


1. A royal charter replaced the old and incorporated Maine and Plymouth into Massachusetts, provided a Governor appointed by the Crown, permitted a Council to be elected by the General Court but subject to the Governor's veto, substituted property for religious qualification, permitted the crown to review all legislation, and allowed appeals to be made to the King in Council.
   
2. Rhode Island and Connecticut still operated under old charters until 1842 and 1818 respectively.
   

IX. Settlement of the Middle Colonies
A. New Netherland based on Dutch claims in the New World through the exploration of Henry Hudson.

1. Adriaen Block (d. 1624) further explored in the early seventeenth century, and noted on maps for the first time that Manhattan and Long Island were separate islands.
   
2. Dutch West India Company, chartered by the States General, had a trading monoploy and the right to colonize in the New World and along the west African coast below the Tropic of Cancer.
   
3. A Provincial Order (Mar 1628) was issued to govern life aboard ship.
   
4. Colonists were divided into free colonists (who could own their own homesteads and were given transportation, seeds, cattle and other necessities for 2 years) and indentured husbandmen (who worked for company officials or on company farms for a specified time).
   
5. Trading with outsiders was banned, being confined to the Company.
   
6. The first permanent settlement was established in 1624 under the leadership of CPT Cornelis Jacobsen May near NY Bay.
   
7. In 1626 Peter Minuit , director of the colonies, purchased Manhattan from native Indian chiefs for 60 guilders ($24.00) worth of goods.
   
8. He erected 30 houses on the island and changed its name to New Amsterdam .
   
9. Patroonships were established by the States General which confirmed the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions .
   a. The company granted feudal rights to estates along the river to those transporting 50 settlers.
   b. By 1630, 5 patroonships were granted, but only one succeeded.
   
10. Minuit was replaced by Wouter Van Twiller (1633-38) because he was too liberal in granting trading privileges to patroons.
    
11. Willem Kiefft (1597-1647) replaced him after he was charged with illegal trading activities and with hostility toward the Dutch Reformed Church.
    

B. Further Dutch Expansion

1. Increased English settlement into their territory and the ascendancy of Iroquois created tensions between Dutch colonies and local Indians, some of whom raided Dutch settlements in the 1640s.
   
2. Peace between the Dutch colonies and the Indians was not restored until Aug 1645.
   
3. The Dutch resettled Long Island in 1646, but were gradually frozen out of Connecticut because of English expansion into that region.
   
4. Peter Stuyvesant (1610-72) succeeded Kiefft and permitted the Dutch colonists to elect a council of Nine to advise him and to act judicially.
   
5. New Amsterdam was granted a municipal charter in 1652.
   

C. New Sweden -- founded by Dutch and Swedish investors in 1633 through the New South Co


1. A charter was granted in 1637 to settle on the Delaware, and Ft. Christina was built in 1638, lasting until 1640, leaderless after Minuit was lost at sea in June 1638.
   
2. The Dutch members of the New Sweden Co. were bought out in 1641 and Johan Bjornsson Printz (1592-1663) served as governor from 1643-53.
   
3. Struggles increased between Dutch settlements and New Sweden, esp over Ft. Casimir, which when recaptured by the Dutch in Sept 1655, effectively ended Swedish colonization in America.
   

D. Anglo-Dutch Relations 1650-64


1. Stuyvesant negotiated a boundary settlement with the New England Confederation which divided Long Island and the mainland.
   
2. This treaty, although never recognized by Britain, remained in force until the fall of New Netherland.
   
3. Anglo-Dutch War July 1652-Apr 1654
   a. New England Confederation was reluctant to declare war on New Amsterdam, although Ft. Good Hope was seized by Connecticut.
   b. Stuyvesant was forced to recognize English suzerainty over towns on Long Island in 1664.
   
4. Indian relations were strained with attacks upon each other's villages until May 1664, when the Indians surrendered the Esopus Valley to the Dutch.
   

E. Conquest of New Netherland


1. The English considered the Dutch settlements to be a hinderance to their expansion westwardly and to the successful enforcement of the Navigation Acts.
   
2. Charles II gave his brother, James, Duke of York a sizeable land grant (Mar 1664).
   
3. The Duke appointed COL Richard Nicolls (1624-72) to capture New Amsterdam and to settle disputes in the New England colonies.
   a. Stuyvesant quickly surrendered to the British, lacking support from his colonists
   (1) The British granted the Dutch settlers liberty of conscience, property and inheritance rights, and the right to trade with Holland for six months.
   (2) The British took over other Dutch settlements without much incidence, although a show of force was necessary before the Dutch surrendered in Delaware.
   b. New Amsterdam was renamed New York in honor of the Duke of York.
   c. Colonial deputies in 1665 from English and Dutch towns approved the Duke's Laws , a civil and criminal code, by which the government was organized.
   
4. The British replaced the Dutch as allies of the Five Nations of the Iroquois .
   
5. Second Anglo-Dutch War (Dec 1664-July 1667)
   a. The property of the Dutch West India Company was seized in 1665 as well as property of Dutch colonists who did not swear allegiance to the British crown.
   b. Peace of Breda July 1667 officially recognized British control of New Netherland after which COL Francis Lovelace served as governor (1668-73).
   
6. Third Anglo-Dutch War (Mar 1672-Feb 1674)
   a. The Dutch under CPT Anthony Colve, briefly reoccupied NY in Aug 1672 and recaptured Esopus and Albany before the Treaty of Westminster restored English control under Sir Edmund Andros.
   b. Andros reconfirmed the government established under Duke's Laws and extended his control over other towns in the area.
   
7. In the 1670s the Duke of York resisted colonial desires for a representative assembly but finally under Thomas Dongan (1634-1715) he let a general assembly convene at least once every 3 years
   a. The assembly enacted the Charter of Liberties in 1683 and approved taxes.
   b. After the Duke became James II in Feb 1685, he tried to cancel this legislation, shifting power to the Royal Governor instead.
   c. The assembly never met again after its disolution in 1687.
   
8. Leisler's Rebellion (11 Aug 1688-20 May 1691)
   a. NY was included in the Dominion of New England under Andros.
   b. After war broke out between France and England, it reached NY in 1689.
   c. Amidst rumors of a Catholic plot, which included CPT Francis Nicholson left in charge by Andros, Jacob Leisler (1649-91) seized Ft. James in May 1689, recognizing William and Mary
   (1) He called upon other counties and towns to send representatives to NY's government.
   (2) He established a Committee of Public Safety.
   d. Meeting in Albany in May 1690, representatives from MA, NY, CN and Plymouth agreed to invade Canada, but this proved disastrous.
   e. COL Henry Sloughter, commissionedby the Lords of Trade in Nov 1689 as the new governor, was delayed in arriving.
   f. MAJ Robert Ingoldesby arrived with a regiment of troops, but Leisler refused to recognize his authority, and hostilities broke out.
   (1) Only after Sloughter arrived in Mar 1691, did Leisler surrender.
   (2) He and 7 others were tried, sentenced to death but only he and his lieutenant were hanged.
   
9. An assembly met in Mar 1691, beginning representative government in NY.
   

F. Establishment of New Jersey


1. Duke of York granted John Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret land between the Hudson and Delaware Rivers.
   
2. Although no governmental rights were granted, proprietors in Feb 1665 in their Concessions and Agreements , granted freedom of conscience, very generous land concessions, and a general assembly of deputies elected by freeholders, which met from June 1668 to Nov 1671.
   
3. Philip Carteret was appointed governor in Feb 1665 and was accepted by the Dutch in the North, but was resisted by English settlers in the South.
   
4. Acquisition by Quakers 1674-87
   a. Lord Berkeley sold his proprietary rights for 1000 pounds to John Fenwick (1618-83) and Edward Byllinge (d. 1685), both Quakers.
   b. Carteret was given the northern part of New Jersey and the province was divided by the Quitipartite Deed between Carteret on one side (East Jersey ) and Byllinge, William Penn, and two other Quakers on the other (West Jersey ).
   c. Byllinge's heirs sold their share to Dr. Daniel Coxe of London while Carteret's heirs sold their share to William Penn and eleven associates, mostly Quakers.
   
5. East Jersey
   a. A power struggle between Andros, head of the Dominion of New England and Philip Carteret, governor of East Jersey, resulted in the arrest of Carteret.
   b. James II secured the surrender of both proprietor charters and incorporated the area into the Dominion of New England.
   c. With the removal of James II, the proprietors resumed control in 1692, and sent Andrew Hamilton, a Scot, as governor until his death in Apr 1703.
   
6. West Jersey
   a. Struggles between Andros and Fenwick over West Jersey continued until 1682 when Fenwick sold his holdings to Penn
   b. 4 proprietors (Mar 1677) issued the Laws, Concessions, and Agreements (mostly authored by Penn), granting freedom of conscience, civil rights (trial by jury and no taxation without representatives of the voters [proprietors, freeholders and inhabitants]).
   c. An Assembly, meeting at Burlington from 1681-1701, challenged the rule of the proprietors (1683), by electing their own governor, Samuel Jennings.
   d. Coxe in 1692 sold out to the West Jersey Society, 48 investors, mostly Anglicans.
   e. Board of Trade recommended that the Crown resume control of private colonies (1701).
   (1) Surrendering to crown authority, the proprietors retained property rights (1702)
   (2) NY's Governor served as NJ's Governor under a separate commission until 1738, when NJ had its own Governor, beginning with Lewis Morris (1671-1746).
   

G. Pennsylvania


1. In college William Penn (1644-1718), joined the Society of Friends or Quakers
   a. His father, Admiral Sir William Penn, had a claim against the crown for 16,000 pounds.
   b. Although a Quaker, Charles II granted a charter to the son in 1681 to satisfy this debt.
   c. Penn became absolute proprietor of the area between 40 and 43 degrees North, west from Delaware through five degrees in longitude.
   (1) Settlers paid to Penn a small tax as quick rent.
   (2) Penn paid the crown two beaverskins per year as rent.
   d. Pennsylvania became a haven for Quakers ; its leaders endeavored to build it upon the kingdom of God, having the church and state work closely together.
   (1) While Puritans had substituted the Bible as the source of authority, instead of the Pope or Crown, the Quakers believed the only source of authority was God who spoke to individuals.
   (2) The Spirit of God resided within every man (who was basically good) and guided each individual as an inner light.
   (3) Germantown Quakers issued the 1st colonial protest against slavery (1688).
   (4) Quaker missionaries were active in every colony, especially Massachusetts.
   (5) Aid was given to individuals for specific persons because humans in the event of misfortune deserved the help of other humans.
   e. Other pertinent Quaker beliefs
   (1) Equality - All people were equal. In the English language of the 1600s, "you" denoted social superiority and was used when talking to inferiors. Thus the Quakers used "thee" and "thou" when addressing each other;
   (2) Simplicity - to emphasize their plain living, they wore darker colors, like grays, browns and blacks and did not like to have their portraits painted;
   (3) Peace - Quakers refused military service as pacifists and when they controlled the legislature, they refused to appropriate any monies to fight the Indians.
   f. Penn, granted limited governmental powers, was required to obey the Navigation Acts, have his laws approved by an assembly, and make all legislation subject to the Privy Council for five years.
   g. The Crown also heard appeals from provincial courts, and reserved the right to impose taxes through Parliament (although not done until 1765).
   
2. Penn Takes Over Delaware
   a. In Aug 1682, the Duke of York granted Penn title to an area which contained Delaware, although no rights of government were conferred.
   b. The Charter of 1701 permitted Delaware a separate government from Pennsylvania.
   c. In Nov 1704, the first independent assembly met at New Castle.
   d. Both areas had the same governor, pending royal approval, until the Revolution.
   
3. Beginning of Pennsylvania's Government
   a. Initially upon receipt of the property from the Duke of York, Penn proclaimed that the Duke's Laws would be enforced until the people decided otherwise.
   b. Penn's Frame of Government (May 1682) provided a Governor (who was the proprietor or his deputy), a council (originally 72 members, 1/3 being elected each year), and an assembly of between 200 and 500 members elected by freeholders.
   (1) The council initiated laws, performed administrative and judicial functions, and tried officials impeached by the assembly.
   (2) The assembly either ratified or rejected legislation until 1696, when it also had the power to initiate laws.
   (3) The assembly in 1683 declared liberty of conscience.
   c. A second Frame of Government (Apr 1683) reduced the council to 18 members and the assembly to 32 delegates.
   d. Penn returned to England in Aug 1684 to defend his title in a boundary dispute with Lord Baltimore.
   
4. Early Settlement
   a. Extensive advertizing with the British Isles, Holland and Germany, resulted in sizeable immigration from the beginning of Penn's colony.
   (1) Many immigrants were Quakers from the Rhineland, lower Palatinate, Ireland and England.
   (2) German Protestant groups were called the Pennsylvania Dutch ("Deutchland")
   (3) Scot-Irish Presbyterians arrived in the 1700s as indentured servants.
   b. Because land grants were careless, Penn's second son, Thomas (1702-75), tried to organize the land system and settle the title quarrels.
   
5. Glorious Revolution in Pennsylvania 1688-94
   a. Because Penn enjoyed a good relationship with James II, and Quakers remained passive toward England's war with France, the crown appointed (Mar 1692) Benjamin Fletcher (NY governor)
   b. The proprietary government was restored in Aug 1694.
   c. Penn returned to the colony as resident Governor in 1699.
   
6. Charter of Liberties Nov 1701
   a. Penn granted a charter which was the constitution of Pennsylvania until the Revolution.
   b. The unicameral legislature approved laws passed by the governor.
   c. Propietary rule ended, except for the appointment of the Governor.
   d. Penn returned to England in 1701 and left James Logan (1674-1751) in charge.
   e. The penniless Penn had to mortgage his province to trustees in 1708.
   
7. Pennsylvanian Society
   a. Social Mobility - the example of John Bringhurst
   (1) This son of a London printer arrived in Pennsylvania in the 1690s with his mother and was apprenticed as a barrel maker (hooper) at age ten.
   (2) He went to sea as a hooper, saving his money from voyages to the West Indies.
   (3) He became a ship navigator.
   (4) He returned to Pennsylvania and built his own barrel making company, bought shares in ships, and by the 1740s was an elder at Quaker meetings.
   b. A Center of Science and Culture -- The first general hospital, the first medical school, the first center of the only inner colony philosophical society.
   c. An early business and farming center
   d. After the Quakers lost their numerical edge they lost control of the legislature.
   e. When that one-house legislature voted to raise an army to fight the Indians, many Quakers left the Government (1750s).
   

X. Establishment of the Lower Thirteen Original Colonies
A. Development of Spanish Florida

1. First Spanish Missionary Efforts 1577-1600
   a. Franciscan activity under Fray Alonso de Reynoso was unsuccessful.
   b. Fray Juan de Silva (1595) intensely established several mission provinces.
   c. Although meeting with some Indian hostility, hundreds of Indians were converted and several chapels were erected north of St Augustine.
   d. Indian attacks (1597-1600) resulted in the abandonment of all missions north of St. Augustine except for Santa Elena.
   e. Retaliatory strikes against Indian villages resulted in a return to peace by 1600 and the establishment of numerous missions throughout Florida.
   
2. Second Line of Advance
   a. Franciscans pushed northward establishing many missions (1601-80).
   b. Activity also pushed westward across the neck of the Florida peninsula
   c. Despite Indian uprisings through 1647, 38 missions existed with 26,000 Indians at least partly converted by 1655.
   

B. English Activity in the Carolinas

1. Background
   a. Sir Robert Heath received a patent (1629) to settled the area between 31 and 36 degrees North (New Carolina ).
   b. Henry Lord Maltravers was granted the province of Carolina by Heath and by Gov John Harvey of Virginia (1632), although no settlements were begun.
   c. Albermarle Colony 1653-54
   (1) Several colonists from VA moved into present NC in 1653, north of the Albermarle Sound.
   (2) This was encouraged by Virginia for the protection of its southern frontier.
   d. Spain's Colony at Jamaica fell to the English (1655), fostering a belief that Spain could be driven from North America and encouraging English expansion southward
   e. Cape Fear Company , organized in 1660 by